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FIG.  1.  Ceres,  the  Roman  goddess  of  grains.    Wall-painting  from  Pompeii. 


CORN  PLANTS 


THEIR  USES  AND  WAYS  OF  LIFE 


BY 


FREDERICK  LEROY  SARGENT 

Formerly  Instructor  in  Botany  in  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  and 

Teacher  in  the  Summer  School  of  Botany  of 

Harvard  University 


WITH  NUMEROUS 
ILLUSTRATIONS 


I  07  O 


BOSTON   AND  NEW  YORK 
HOUGHTON,  MIFFLIN  AND  COMPANY 


IOT03 


COPYRIGHT,  1899 

BY  FREDERICK  LEROY  SARGEXT 
ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 


SB 


PEEFACE. 

THIS  little  volume  aims  to  present  attractively  to 
young  people  trustworthy  information  regarding  a 
few  of  the  most  important  plants  in  the  world.  It  is 
believed  that  the  book  will  be  of  value  also  to  older 
readers  who  seek  an  elementary  knowledge  of  the 
subject,  and  do  not  object  to  being  addressed  on  such 
matters  in  simple  language  freed  from  unnecessary 
technicalities.  Not  that  the  unwise  attempt  has  been 
made  to  avoid  all  technical  expressions  ;  they  have 
been  introduced,  however,  always  with  a  sufficient 
indication  of  their  meaning,  and  none  are  used  which 
all  readers  are  not  likely  to  welcome  as  saving  more 
trouble  than  they  make. 

Although  intended  for  use  in  schools,  this  volume 
is  not  offered  as  a  text-book,  but  rather  as  affording 
profitable  reading  supplementary  to  text-books,  or  as 
giving  material  for  teachers'  talks. 

The  main  purpose  is  to  enliven  the  study  of  plants 
by  showing  some  of  their  most  intimate  relations  with 
our  daily  lives.  This  purpose  involves  the  casting  of 
helpful  side-lights  upon  a  wide  range  of  human  con- 
cerns. In  these  pages  not  only  are  corn  plants  viewed 
sympathetically  as  living  things,  but  the  story  is  told 
of  how  man  has  been  helped  by  them  in  different 
parts  of  the  world,  and  at  different  periods  of  his 


iv  PREFACE. 

advance  from  savagery.  Studied  in  this  way  these 
familiar  natural  objects  come  to  have  an  important 
educational  value  in  helping  the  student  to  feel  those 
vital  connections  between  his  various  studies  which 
should  serve  to  knit  them  firmly  together  in  his  mind. 
In  a  word,  the  attempt  has  been  made  to  show  how 
the  peculiarities  of  half  a  dozen  supremely  useful 
plants  have  affected  the  welfare  of  humanity,  and 
have  in  turn  been  affected  by  human  influence. 

Only  such  features  of  these  plants  have  been  dealt 
with  as  may  be  readily  observed  with  specimen  in 
hand.  Aided  by  the  illustrations  it  should  be  pos- 
sible for  any  one  to  recognize  in  the  living  or  the 
dried  plant  all  the  parts  referred  to,  and  to  repeat 
the  simple  experiments  suggested.  Every  competent 
teacher  must  realize  that  no  pictures  or  descriptions, 
however  accurate,  can  well  take  the  place  of  good 
specimens  of  the  objects  portrayed.  The  best  service 
which  this  little  book  can  render  is  to  enhance  the 
keen  enjoyment  which  comes  from  careful  and 
thoughtful  examination  of  corn  plants.  If  the  reader 
desires  to  know  these  plants  as  they  are,  he  must  see 
them,  handle  them,  and  watch  them  at  different 
periods  of  their  life. 

A  large  share  of  the  figures  were  drawn  by  the 
author  directly  from  nature.  The  others  have  been 
copied  from  well-known  sources  which  are  duly  indi- 
cated. To  the  botanists  of  the  Harvard  Herbarium 
grateful  acknowledgments  are  due  for  the  use  of 
books  and  specimens.  To  the  schoolteachers  whose 


PREFACE.  v 

kindly  criticisms  have  given  the  author  much  help 
and  encouragement  in  his  effort  to  meet  an  educa- 
tional need,  he  would  here  tender  his  sincere  thanks ; 
and  finally,  he  would  also  express  his  warmest  grati- 
tude to  the  other  friends  who  have  aided  him  most 
practically  in  the  details  of  preparation. 
CAMBKIDGB,  March,  1899. 


The  silver  coin  reproduced  on  the  cover  and  title-page  is 
of  the  ancient  Greek  colony  of  Metapontum  in  Southern 
Italy,  and  dates  from  330-314  B.  c.  On  the  obverse  ap- 
pears the  head  of  Persephone,  the  corn  maiden,  or  of  her 
mother,  Demeter,  the  goddess  of  agriculture.  The  hair  is 
bound  with  corn.  On  the  reverse  of  the  coin  are  an  ear  of 
barley  and  a  plough,  symbolizing  the  great  fertility  of  the 
territory  of  Metapontum. 


CONTENTS. 

PAOB 

I.  WHAT  CORN  PLANTS  ARE <.  1 

II.   THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  CORN  PLANTS  TO  MANKIND  .  3 

The  Story  of  Ceres  and  Proserpine 3 

The  Roman  Cereal  Festivals 6 

Other  Corn  Rites  and  their  Meaning      ....  7 

III.  CORN  PLANTS  IN  THE  FIELD 11 

How  they  manage   against  Wind,  Weight,  and 

Wet 11 

jt^    Defenses  against  Drought 26 

Food-making  and  Growth 30 

IV.  How  CORN   PLANTS  PROVIDE    FOR  THEIR  OFF- 

SPRING     34 

Seed-making 34 

The  Floral  Parts 35 

The  Beginning  of  the  Seed 42 

Ripening  and  Protection  of  the  Fruit     ....  48 

Scattering  and  Planting  of  Seeds 53 

The  Infant  Plant  and  its  Food 62 

V.  THE  ADVANTAGES  OF  CEREALS  AS  FOOD  PLANTS  .  68 

Yield 69 

Separation 72 

Bulk 73 

Keeping 74 

Summary 75 

VI.  WHEAT,  THE  KING  OF  CEREALS 75 

VII.   OATS,  THE  GRAIN  OF  HARDINESS 80 

VIII.  RYE,  THE  GRAIN  OF  POVERTY 83 

IX.   BARLEY,  THE  BREWER'S  GRAIN 85 

X.   RICE,  THE  CORN  OF  THE  EAST 89 

XI.   MAIZE,  THE  CORN  OF  THE  WEST 91 

XII.  A  GENERAL  VIEW  OF  CORN  PLANTS  .                  .  102 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PI8.  PAGE 

1.  Ceres Frontispiece 

2.  Assurnazirpal 9 

3.  Maize  plant 13 

4.  Spikelet  from  the  tassel  of  maize 13 

5.  Experiment  with  paper  tube 15 

6.  Maize,  leaf  at  rest 23 

7.  The  same,  in  the  wind 23 

8.  A  young  ear,  a  spikelet,  and  the  upper  part  of  a 

stigma  of  maize 27 

9.  A  ripe  kernel  of  maize 33 

10.  Maize  kernels  sprouting 33 

11.  Coyote  corn 37 

12.  Oat  plant  showing  tillers 45 

13.  Oat  plant  recovered  from  effects  of  storm     ....  50 

14.  Sheath  ring  of  oat 61 

15.  Rain  guard  of  oat 54 

16.  Inflorescence  of  oat 58 

17.  Diagram  of  oat  spikelet 59 

18.  Spikelet  of  cultivated  oat  in  fruit 65 

19.  Spikelet  of  wild  oat  in  fruit 65 

20.  Rice,  part  of  a  plant,  a  spikelet  and  a  ligule      ...  71 

21.  Rice,  inflorescence,  spikelet,  flower,  and  kernel ...  77 

22.  Rice,  a  bearded  spikelet  and  part  of  the  awn     ...  77 

23.  Inflorescence  of  rye 81 

24.  Spikelet,  bracts,  and  kernel  of  rye 81 

25.  Inflorescence  of  common  bearded  wheat 87 

26.  Inflorescence  of  club  wheat 87 

27.  Spikelet,  rachis,  bracts,  pistil,  and  kernel  of  wheat     .  93 

28.  Common  barley,  inflorescence 97 

29.  Two-rowed  barley,  inflorescence 97 

30.  Six-rowed  barley,  spikelets,  flower,  and  kernel  ...  99 

31.  Wild  oat-grass,  flowering  spikelets  showing  arrange- 

ments for  pollination 101 

32.  Map,  showing  probable  native  homes  of  various  corn 

plants 103 


CORN  PLANTS. 

/  £  7  O  3 
I.  WHAT  CORN  PLANTS  ARE. 

IT  is  somewhat  curious  how  differently  the  word 
"  corn  "  is  understood  by  different  peoples.  In  the 
United  States  we  generally  mean  by  it  simply  maize 
or  Indian  corn  ;  but  the  Scotch  use  it  as  meaning  oats, 
and  to  most  Englishmen  an  "  ear  of  corn  "  suggests 
nothing  but  a  head  of  wheat,  while  throughout  the 
northern  part  of  the  European  continent  a  "  corn- 
field "  is  understood  almost  always  as  a  field  of  rye. 

If  we  turn  to  our  Authorized  Version  of  the  Bible 
we  find  the  word  "  corn  "  used  in  several  interesting 
ways.  It  is  said  that  Ruth  coming  to  Bethlehem  "  in 
the  beginning  of  the  barley  harvest "  asked  "  to  go 
into  the  field  and  glean  ears  of  corn  "  (Ruth  i.  22  and 
ii.  2).  But  it  was  "in  the  time  of  the  wheat  harvest" 
that  Samson  burned  "  the  standing  corn  of  the  Philis- 
tines "  by  tying  firebrands  to  the  foxes'  tails  (Judges 
xv.  1,  5).  The  humane  statute  of  Moses  "  Thou  shalt 
not  muzzle  the  ox  when  he  treadeth  out  the  corn  " 
(Deuteronomy  xxv.  4)  undoubtedly  applies  to  all  the 
grain  plants  harvested  by  the  Israelites.  Finally,  in 
the  words  of  Jesus,  "  except  a  corn  of  wheat  fall  into 
the  ground  and  die,  it  abideth  alone  "  (John  xii.  24), 
the  meaning  of  corn  is  plainly  kernel. 

How  did  "  corn  "  come  to  have  these  different  mean- 
ings ?  The  dictionary  tells  us  that  the  word  first 


2  CORN  PLANTS. 

meant  simply  a  hard,  edible  seed,  grain,  or  kernel,1 
and  was  applied  especially  to  such  kinds  as  were 
of  most  importance  for  food.  From  this  it  would  be 
but  a  short  step  to  speak  of  the  plants  which  bore 
such  kernels,  as  "  corn  plants  "  or  "  corn  "  in  general. 
Then  whichever  of  these  plants  was  most  familiar  to 
a  people  naturally  came  to  be  known  as  "  the  corn  " 
of  that  region,  or  simply  as  "  corn,"  while  those  corn 
plants  which  were  in  less  common  use  were  distin- 
guished by  their  separate  names.  Thus  we  account  for 
the  different  ways  in  which  "  corn  "  has  been  under- 
stood by  different  people  at  different  times.  In  this 
book  we  shall  use  the  word  as  a  general  name  to  in- 
clude wheat,  barley,  rye,  oats,  rice,  and  maize  —  the 
six  plants  which  produce  the  principal  breadstuff  s  of 
the  world,  and  the  most  valuable  of  all  vegetable 
foods.2 

1  An  example  of  this  use  is  found  in  the  word  "  barleycorn," 
which  means  either  a  kernel  of  barley  or  a  measure  of  length, 
three  barleycorns  being  equal  to  one  inch. 

2  The  general  name  "  corn  "  is  applied  also  to  several  other 
plants  which  resemble  more  or  less  the  six  above  named.     Thus, 
there  is  the  Kaffir-  or  Guinea-corn,  otherwise  known  as  dhourra 
or  Indian  millet.    This  is  extensively  used  for  food  in  Africa  and 
Southern  Asia.     Then  there  are  the  true  millet,  and  the  Italian 
millet,  which  are  somewhat  similar  plants  that  have  been  long 
cultivated  in  the  Old  World.     In  Central  America  a  corn-like 
plant  called  teosinte  is  highly  valued  for  food.     Quinoa,  a  South. 
American  plant  very  like  our  common  pigweed,  produces  grain 
much  used  in  the  mountainous  regions.     These  and  also  buck- 
wheat, which  is  grown  to  a  considerable  extent  in  many  coun- 
tries, are  sometimes  included  among  corn  plants  :  but  all  of 
them,  and  others  which  might  be  mentioned,  are  of  so  much  less 
importance  to   us   than  are   the  six   great  corn  plants  named 
above,  that  we  shall  not  need  to  consider  them  further  in  these 
pages. 


THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  CORN  PLANTS.         3 

II.  THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  CORN  PLANTS  TO  MAN- 
KIND. 

Corn  plants,  as  we  know,  are  called  also  cereals  or 
cereal  grains.  How  they  came  to  receive  this  name 
is  a  question  which  is  of  interest  not  only  because  the 
answer  must  lead  us  very  far  into  the  past,  but  also 
because  it  will  help  us  to  realize  how  important  these 
plants  have  been  to  civilized  people  from  the  earliest 
times. 

Like  so  many  of  our  words  this  name  is  of  Latin 
origin,  and  was  used  in  nearly  its  present  form  by  the 
ancient  Romans  over  two  thousand  years  ago.  The 
people  of  those  days,  as  we  know,  had  many  myths. 
These  often  meant  a  great  deal  to  them,  for  it  was 
only  through  such  stories  of  gods  and  heroes  that 
they  felt  able  to  account  for  the  wonders  of  nature. 
Of  all  these  ancient  myths  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
and  significant  was  the  following,  which  will  aid  us 
in  understanding  the  origin  of  the  name  "  cereal." 

The  Story  of  Ceres  and  Proserpine. 

Ceres  was  the  goddess  of  agriculture  and  especially 
watched  over  the  growth  of  grains.  (See  Fig.  1.) 
Proserpine,  her  only  daughter,  was  a  girl  of  wonderful 
loveliness  and  the  joy  of  her  mother's  heart.  When 
the  world  was  new  they  dwelt  together  upon  the 
earth.  The  maiden  loved  flowers  dearly  and  was 
never  happier  than  when  playing  among  them  in  thp 
fields.  One  day  she  strayed  off  by  herself  to  gather 
some  rare  blossoms  which  grew  in  a  certain  valley. 
There  Pluto,  the  god  of  the  underworld,  chanced  to 
see  her,  and  so  charmed  was  he  by  her  exquisite 
beauty  that  he  determined  at  on.ce  to  carry  her  off, 


4  CORN  PLANTS. 

that  she  might  always  live  with  him  and  brighten  the 
gloom  of  his  realm  below.  As  he  caught  up  the 
frightened  girl  into  his  golden  chariot,  her  flowers 
fell  to  the  ground.  So  also  did  the  girdle  which  she 
had  worn.  When  night  came  and  Proserpine  did  not 
return,  Ceres  was  filled  with  fear  least  some  harm 
had  befallen  her  daughter.  With  torch  in  hand  she 
searched  far  and  wide.  Dawn  came  and  found  the 
poor  mother  distracted  with  grief  and  still  wandering 
with  the  lighted  torch.  No  one  whom  she  met  could 
tell  her  where  Proserpine  had  gone,  though  all  were 
moved  with  pity.  Day  after  day  and  night  after  night 
she  searched,  passing  through  many  lands,  till  at  last 
she  came  to  a  place  in  Greece  called  Eleusis.  Here, 
utterly  discouraged,  she  sat  down  to  weep.  Toward 
nightfall  a  poor  man  and  his  wife  found  the  goddess, 
thus  bowed  with  grief,  and,  thinking  her  to  be  a  mor- 
tal, tried  to  comfort  her.  They  offered  her  the  hospi- 
tality of  their  home.  They,  too,  were  full  of  sorrow, 
for  their  only  son,  Triptolemus,  was  sick  unto  death. 
Touched  by  the  tender  kindness  of  these  good  people, 
Ceres  went  with  them,  and  to  their  exceeding  joy 
healed  Triptolemus.  Then  revealing  her  true  nature 
she  promised  some  day  to  teach  the  lad  what  would 
make  him  honored  by  all  mankind.  She  then  con- 
tinued her  anxious  search,  yet  with  a  lighter  heart, 
for  the  hope  had  come  again  that  she  might  soon  find 
some  trace  of  her  daughter.  It  was  not  long  before 
she  came  upon  a  bunch  of  withered  flowers  and  the 
girdle  which  Proserpine  had  let  fall  from  the  chariot. 
Near  by  was  a  huge  crack  in  the  ground.  Now  Ceres 
felt  sure  that  the  earth  had  opened  to  swallow  her 
child.  Full  of  anger  at  the  earth's  ingratitude  the 
goddess  cursed  the  land,  and  brought  drought  and 


THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  CORN  PLANTS.         5 

famine.  Though  every  creature  suffered,  still  even 
those  who  knew  well  what  had  happened  dared  not 
tell  Ceres,  for  fear  of  Pluto's  wrath.  At  last  the 
nymph  of  a  certain  fountain  which  flowed  from  the 
underworld  was  so  moved  by  all  the  misery  which  had 
come  upon  the  earth,  that  she  could  hold  the  secret 
no  longer.  So,  when  Ceres  came  one  day  to  the  foun- 
tain, the  nymph  cried  out  to  her,  "  O  Goddess,  blame 
not  the  land  for  what  has  befallen !  I  have  seen  thy 
daughter  in  the  realms  below.  Pluto  has  made  her 
his  queen."  On  hearing  this  Ceres  hastened  to  the 
throne  of  Jupiter,  chief  of  the  gods,  and  implored 
him  to  give  command  for  Proserpine's  release.  This 
he  agreed  to  do,  provided  the  maiden  had  eaten  no 
food  while  in  the  lower  world  :  for  so  willed  the  Fates, 
whom  even  the  gods  obey.  But  alas !  it  was  found 
that  she  had  tasted  some  of  the  pulp  of  a  pomegranate 
which  the  wily  Pluto  had  given  her,  and  in  so  doing 
had  put  six  of  the  seeds  into  her  mouth.  She  was 
doomed  therefore  to  remain  six  months  of  every  year 
with  Pluto  in  the  world  below  ;  but  for  the  other  half 
of  the  year  she  was  permitted  to  live  in  the  realm  of 
sunshine  with  her  mother,  and  each  year  Spring  was 
to  lead  her  forth.  Pluto  had  been  so  kind  to  Pro- 
serpine that  she  had  grown  fond  of  him  and  did  not 
feel  at  all  sorry  about  the  seeds.  Ceres  was  content 
in  that  her  daughter  was  so  far  restored  to  her.  Be- 
stowing once  more  her  favor  on  the  land  she  caused 
it  to  bring  forth  abundantly.  She  remembered,  more- 
over, her  promise  to  Triptolemus  and  taught  him  the 
use  of  the  plough,  the  sowing  of  seed,  and  the  rais- 
ing of  grain.  These  things,  in  his  turn,  he  taught 
mankind,  and  thus  through  his  teachings  came  the 
beginnings  of  agriculture. 


6  CORN  PLANTS. 

As  the  reader  has  doubtless  already  discovered,  we 
have  in  this  charming  myth  little  more  than  a  poetic 
story  of  the  corn  plant,  which,  like  Proserpine,  passes 
a  season  in  the  earth,  awaiting  the  gentle  hand  of 
Spring  to  lead  it  into  the  light  of  day.  Also  we  have 
the  thought  that  the  beginnings  of  agriculture  came 
with  man's  first  knowledge  of  the  growth  of  grain. 

The  Roman   Cereal  Festivals. 

That  such  was  the  real  meaning  of  the  myth  to  the 
ancient  Romans  is  shown  by  the  way  in  which  they 
celebrated  their  great  agricultural  festivals.  These 
were  held  each  year  at  springtime  and  harvest.  From 
the  twelfth  to  the  nineteenth  of  April  came  a  series  of 
important  ceremonies  in  memory  of  the  return  of  Pro- 
serpine. Throughout  the  country  the  people  marched 
in  procession  around  their  fields,  imploring  the  favor 
of  Ceres  upon  the  growing  grain.  In  the  city  the 
worshipers,  all  dressed  in  white,  went  to  the  temple 
of  Ceres,  bringing  incense  and  honey,  and  cakes  of 
wheat  and  barley  as  offerings  to  the  goddess.  On  the 
last  day  of  the  festival  elaborate  games  were  held  in 
her  honor.  The  second  festival  coming  in  August 
was  a  feast  of  thanksgiving.  At  this  the  firstfruits 
of  the  grain  harvest  were  brought  as  an  offering  to 
Ceres.  The  ceremony  was  performed  by  women 
alone,  dressed  as  before  in  pure  white.  So  sacred 
was  this  office  considered  that  a  fast  of  nine  days  was 
required  as  a  preparation. 

The  gifts  to  Ceres,  offered  at  these  festivals,  were 
called  by  the  Romans  cerealia  munera  (Ceres'  gifts), 
or  simply  cerealia.  We  can  now  answer  our  question 
as  to  how  corn  plants  came  to  be  known  as  "  cereals." 
Since  by  far  the  most  important  of  the  gifts  to  Ceres 


THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  CORN  PLANTS.         7 

were  from  wheat  and  barley,  it  was  very  natural  that 
these  plants  should  come  to  have  the  name  cerealia 
or  cereals  applied  especially  to  them  ;  and  when  other 
similar  grains  came  into  use,  it  was  equally  natural 
that  they  should  be  included  under  the  same  general 
name.  Thus  it  was  that  the  word  came  finally  to  have 
the  wide  sense  in  which  we  use  it  to-day. 

Other   Corn  Rites  and  their  Meaning. 

How  came  the  Romans  to  have  this  story  of  Ceres 
and  Proserpine  ?  The  fact  is  that  they  borrowed  it 
from  their  neighbors,  the  Greeks.  Long  before  the 
Romans  began  to  hold  their  cereal  festivals,  the 
Greeks  celebrated  with  even  greater  magnificence 
what  were  known  as  the  "  Eleusinian  Mysteries." 
These  were  so  called  because  the  chief  ceremonies 
took  place  at  Eleusis,  the  home  of  Triptolemus,  where, 
as  the  Greeks  believed,  this  great  benefactor  of  man- 
kind had  first  established  the  worship  of  the  goddess 
of  grains.  The  celebration  of  these  "Mysteries," 
which  took  place  early  in  autumn,  formed  the  great 
religious  event  of  the  year.  It  lasted  many  days,  and 
the  various  ceremonies  were  arranged  to  commemorate 
in  a  striking  manner  the  doings  of  the  leading  persons 
in  the  myth  of  the  corn  maiden.  But  most  significant 
of  all  were  the  concluding  rites,  in  which  the  worship- 
ers were  permitted  to  handle  and  taste  the  sacred  sym- 
bols of  the  goddess,  and  finally  amid  profound  silence 
beheld  a  living  corn  plant  cut  down  by  the  priest. 

In  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  we  read  of  the  Israelites, 
at  the  yearly  festival  of  the  Passover,  preparing,  at 
Moses'  command,  unleavened  bread  in  memory  of 
their  flight  from  Egypt ;  and  also  as  part  of  the  same 
celebration,  bringing  the  first  sheaf  of  the  harvest  as 


8  CORN  PLANTS. 

an  offering  to  Jehovah.  After  the  harvest  was  gath- 
ered came  the  festival  of  Pentecost  or  Harvest  Feast, 
when,  amid  great  rejoicings  and  thanksgivings,  loaves 
of  leavened  bread  were  brought  before  the  Lord. 
"  The  whole  ceremony,"  says  a  learned  writer,  "  was 
the  completion  of  that  dedication  of  the  harvest  to 
God,  the  giver,  .  .  .  which  was  begun  by  the  offering 
of  the  wave-sheaf  at  the  Passover."  l 

Among  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians  who  were 
akin  to  the  Hebrews,  and  dwelt  in  the  fertile  valley 
of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  we  find  evidences  of  a 
similar  appreciation  of  the  value  of  corn  plants.  One 
of  their  ancient  monuments  recently  discovered  shows 
a  great  king  in  priestly  robes  offering  for  a  sacrifice 
an  ear  of  wheat.  (Fig.  2.) 

As  wheat  was  valued  by  the  peoples  of  Assyria  and 
Babylonia,  so  has  rice  been  held  for  ages  in  the  high- 
est estimation  by  the  people  of  China.  One  interest- 
ing proof  of  this  is  a  royal  ceremony  of  seed-planting, 
believed  to  have  been  instituted  by  one  of  their 
emperors  who  reigned  2700  B.  c.  Every  year  for 
these  many  centuries  the  seeds  of  rice  and  of  four 
other  food  plants  have  been  sown  with  appropriate 
rites  by  members  of  the  government.  The  rice  is 
always  planted  by  the  emperor  in  token  of  its  supreme 
importance. 

We  learn  from  accounts  of  early  explorers  in  the 
New  World  that  maize  was  similarly  valued  by  that 
remarkable  people,  the  Nahuas  of  ancient  Mexico. 
This  grain  was  extensively  cultivated  as  the  staple 
crop  of  the  region,  and  in  much  the  same  way  in 
which  the  Romans  sacrificed  to  Ceres  the  firstfruits  of 
their  grain  harvests,  the  Nahuas  offered  with  elaborate 
1  See  Exodus  xxix.  23,  24. 


FIG.  2.  Assurnazirpal,  king  of  Assyria  (883-859  B.  c.),  as  priest  offering  a  kid  and 
a  head  of  wheat  for  a  sacrifice.    Bas-relief.    (Layard.) 


10  CORN  PLANTS. 

ceremony  the  firstf  ruits  of  their  cornfields  to  Centoati, 
their  goddess  of  maize.  The  ancient  Peruvians  almost 
worshiped  the  maize  plant  as  a  divinity.  At  harvest 
time,  as  they  returned  home  singing  from  the  fields, 
the  people  reverently  carried  a  large  bundle  of  maize 
wrapped  in  rich  garments.  This  they  called  by  the 
name  of  their  harvest  deity,  Perua.  For  three  nights 
they  continued  the  worship  of  Perua,  imploring  pro- 
tection for  the  maize  they  had  gathered. 

When  our  forefathers  came  to  this  country  they 
found  the  "  Indian  corn,"  as  will  be  remembered, 
largely  cultivated  by  the  aborigines  of  North  Amer- 
ica. In  fact  it  was  to  this  fortunate  circumstance 
that  many  of  the  colonists  owed  their  lives ;  and  we 
may  well  believe  that  if  it  had  not  been  for  the  corn 
of  the  Indians,  the  brave  attempts  to  establish  colonies 
in  the  colder  parts  of  the  New  World  might  have 
failed  for  lack  of  food.  Hence  in  the  celebration 
of  our  Thanksgiving  Day,  since  this  festival  was 
founded  by  those  who  were  thus  sustained,  it  has 
been  deemed  particularly  appropriate  that  especial 
prominence  should  be  given  to  Indian  corn  among 
the  grains  which  are  used  in  church  decoration  and 
otherwise  on  that  occasion. 

From  what  has  been  said  and  from  what  is  to  fol- 
low, it  will  be  seen  that  throughout  the  world  there 
has  been  from  earliest  times  the  closest  connection 
between  the  growing  of  grains  and  the  progress  of 
mankind  —  that,  in  a  word,  cereals  and  civilization 
have  ever  gone  hand  in  hand.  Moreover,  it  will  ap- 
pear that  as  nations  have  advanced  in  culture  and  im- 
portance, their  dependence  upon  corn  plants  has  been 
not  less  but  greater.  In  this  we  may  see  the  reason 
why  among  all  peoples  these  plants  which  have  yielded 


CORN  PLANTS  IN  THE  FIELD.  11 

to  them  their  daily  bread  have  ever  stood  as  a  symbol 
and  supreme  example  of  the  best  gifts  of  the  Giver 
of  Life. 

III.    CORN  PLANTS  IN  THE  FIELD. 

Why  it  is  that  corn  plants  play  so  important  a  part 
in  our  daily  lives,  and  why  certain  of  them  are  more 
highly  valued  than  others,  are  questions  which  must 
be  answered  by  referring  to  peculiarities  of  the  plants 
themselves.  We  shall  be  helped,  therefore,  in  trying 
to  understand  the  deep  connection  between  our  lives 
and  theirs,  if  we  consider  first  the  way  in  which  they 
live. 

How  they  Manage  against  Wind,  Weight,  and  Wet. 

It  may  be  said  in  general  of  all  these  plants  that 
they  are  never  so  much  at  home  as  when  growing  in 
broad,  wind-swept  fields.  A  special  fitness  for  such 
life  in  the  open  is  shown  in  every  part  of  a  corn  plant 
and  in  its  whole  behavior.  We  may  well  credit  those 
who  tell  us  that  in  order  to  realize  fully  what  corn 
plants  are  like  when  at  their  best,  one  should  see 
them  growing  in  the  vast  fields  of  our  great  North- 
western States. 

Not  long  ago  I  heard  of  a  little  girl  who  had  come 
East  from  a  Western  wheat  farm.  She  had  never 
seen  the  ocean,  and  when  taken  to  get  her  first  view 
of  it  she  did  not  seem  to  be  so  much  impressed  as 
her  friends  expected  she  would  be.  After  a  while 
they  asked  her  if  she  did  n't  like  it.  "  Oh  yes,"  she 
replied,  "  I  like  it  very  well  because  it  has  waves,  but 
I  like  the  waving  wheat  at  home  a  great  deal  better." 
Those  of  us  who  have  seen  the  ocean  only  may  wonder 
at  such  a  comparison,  but  it  will  not  surprise  us  when 


12  CORN  PLANTS. 

we  stop  to  think  that  not  even  the  Atlantic  can  give 
a  greater  impression  of  immense  extent  than  a  grain 
field  stretching  out  on  every  side  as  far  as  the  eye  can 
reach. 

The  very  characteristic  and  beautiful  wave  effect, 
which  every  one  has  noticed  in  a  field  of  grain  as  the 
leaves  or  ripening  heads  bow  before  the  wind,  is  made 
possible  by  a  remarkable  arrangement  of  elastic  ma- 
terial in  the  framework  of  the  plant.  If  we  examine 
one  of  the  long,  slender  leaves,  we  find  it  to  be 
strengthened  by  numerous  springy  threads  extending 
from  base  to  tip.  They  form  a  sort  of  skeleton  for 
the  leaf.  In  the  larger  leaves  of  corn  plants,  especially 
those  of  maize,  we  find,  besides  the  many  slender 
threads  which  run  side  by  side  throughout  the  length 
of  the  leaf,  a  bundle  of  threads  of  extra  thickness  and 
strength,  running  like  a  backbone  through  the  middle 
of  the  blade.  It  is  owing  to  these  threads  that  the 
blade  of  a  corn  plant  when  at  rest  naturally  takes  a 
broad,  graceful  curve,  like  that  shown  in  Figure  3. 
Yet  the  springs  are  so  delicately  elastic  that  they 
yield  at  the  slightest  breath  of  air,  while  the  leaves 
are  so  formed  as  to  allow  a  stronger  wind  to  pass 
with  only  the  least  possible  pull  upon  the  stalk. 

In  the  stalk  we  have  the  same  sort  of  springy  mate- 
rial formed  into  similar  threads,  but,  instead  of  being 
in  a  flat  row  like  those  of  the  leaf -blade,  they  are 
arranged  in  the  form  of  a  tube.  The  tubular  form 
gives  much  greater  stiffness,  and  that  is  what  the 
stem  especially  needs,  since  it  has  not  only  its  own 
weight  to  support  but  also  that  of  the  leaves  and,  in 
course  of  time,  the  fruit.1 

1  We  mean  by  fruit  the  seeds  and  whatever  adjoining  parts 
ripen  in  connection  with  them. 


FIG.  4.  Maize.  A  spikelet  from  the 
tassel  cut  lengthwise  to  show  its  two 
flowers,  the  one  on  the  right  fully 
open,  the  other  not  yet  mature.  8k, 
stalklet ;  C,  C',  otfter  bracts  ;  D,  E, 
inner  bracts  of  the  open  flower ;  G, 
lodicules,  which  by  swelling  spread 
the  bracts  apart ;  F',  F",  filaments 
cut  across  ;  F,  filament  bearing  ripe 
anther  (R  A)  shedding  pollen  (P) ; 
Y  A,  young  anthers,  the  left  hand 
FIG.  3.  Maize  plant.  T,  tassel ;  S,  stalk  ;  one  cut  to  show  the  pollen.  Enlarged. 

L,  leaf  ;  E,  E,  E,  ears  ;  N,  N,  nodes  ;  B,  B,     (Original.) 

brace  roots  ;  R,  earth  roots ;   G,  G,  surface 

of  ground.     (Original.) 


14  CORN  PLANTS. 

The  great  advantage  derived  from  the  tubular  ar- 
rangement is  well  shown  by  the  following  simple  ex- 
periment. Take  a  piece  of  writing  paper,  say  eight 
inches  long  by  three  wide.  Observe  that  when  flat  it 
has  not  stiffness  enough  to  sustain  even  its  o'.yn 
weight  in  an  upright  position.  Now  roll  it  lengthwise 
into  a  tube  about  three  quarters  of  an  inch  in  dia- 
meter, and  to  prevent  its  unrolling  slide  on  to  the 
tube  three  squares  of  paper  having  a  hole  of  the  same 
diameter  as  the  tube  cut  from  the  centre.  Place  the 
tube  upright  on  the  table  and  arrange  books  as  shown 
in  the  diagram  (Fig.  5)  at  P,  B  and  G,  so  that  the 
middle  of  one  end  of  the  book  B  will  rest  squarely  on 
the  tube.  If  now  on  this  support  additional  books 
(W)  be  placed  carefully,  one  at  a  time,  it  will  be 
found  that  the  tube  will  hold  up  a  weight  likely  to 
astonish  any  one  who  has  never  tested  the  strength  of 
such  a  seemingly  feeble  column. 

Moreover,  builders  have  discovered  that  in  making 
a  column  for  support  the  tubular  form  gives  far 
greater  strength  than  if  the  same  amount  of  material 
were  made  into  a  solid  cylinder.  Hence  the  use  of 
tubes  as  far  as  possible  in  bicycle  frames,  which  re- 
quire the  utmost  strength  attainable  with  a  small 
weight  of  material.  There  is  only  this  drawback,  that 
when  the  tube  is  very  long  in  comparison  with  its 
width  there  comes  the  danger  of  collapse  or  flattening 
and  falling  together  of  the  sides.  In  the  grain  stalk 
this  is  avoided  by  means  of  solid  joints J  called  nodes, 

1  As  the  word  "  joint "  is  liable  to  be  misunderstood,  since  it 
may  mean  either  the  place  of  a  partition  or  a  portion  extending 
from  one  partition  to  another,  we  shall  avoid  confusion  by  using 
the  botanical  terms  node  (from  the  Latin  nodus  meaning  a  knot) 
and  internode  (Latin  inter,  between). 


CORN  PLANTS  IN  THE  FIELD.  15 

which  act  as  cross  partitions  dividing  the  whole  stem 
into  a  series  of  tubes  (the  internodes)  each  of  safe 
length.  (Figs.  3,  12,  13,  and  14  II.) 

It  should  be  noticed,  also,  that  the  need  for  stiffness 
is  not  the  same  in  all  parts  of  the  stem,  but  increases 
towards  the  base ;  for,  plainly,  the  weight  to  be  upheld 


FIG.  5.  Experiment  with  paper  tube.  T,  paper  tube;  S,  S,  S,  pieces  of  paper 
slipped  over  the  tube  to  prevent  unrolling ;  P,  pile  of  books  as  high  as  tube ;  B,  book, 
of  which  one  end  rests  on  P,  while  the  other  is  supported  by  the  tube;  W,  books 
added  as  weight;  G,  pile  of  books  slightly  lower  than  P,  coming  under  B,  to  guard 
against  fall  of  W.  (Original.) 

and  the  bending  strain  caused  by  wind  become  greater 
and  greater  in  the  lower  parts.  To  provide  this  extra 
stiffness  the  distances  between  the  nodes  are  less  and 
less  as  the  base  is  approached,  while  at  the  same  time 
there  is  in  the  internodes  some  thickening  of  the  wall. 
As  we  pass  upwards  from  the  base  of  the  stem  not 
only  does  the  need  for  stiffness  become  less  but  there 
is  a  steadily  increasing  need  for  as  much  springiness 
as  possible.  This  is  necessary  in  order  that  the  upper 
parts  may  yield  readily  before  the  wind,  and  allow  it 
to  pass  with  least  resistance,  and  hence  with  least 


16  CORN  PLANTS. 

strain  upon  the  lower  portions.  We  know  that  a 
slender  rod  is  the  best  form  to  secure  flexibility  in 
every  direction,  just  as  a  tube  is  the  form  of  greatest 
stiffness  for  a  given  amount  of  material.  As  might 
be  expected,  therefore,  we  find  the  upper  portion  of 
grain  stems  increasingly  slender  and  the  cavity  of 
each  internode  becoming  much  less  in  proportion  to 
the  wall.  That  is,  the  internodes  are  more  and  more 
rodlike,  until  finally  the  uppermost  are  nearly  or  quite 
solid.  We  see  this  particularly  well  shown  in  the 
upper  branchlets  of  the  oat  stalk,  where  the  springy 
material  is  made  into  wirelike  supports  well-nigh  as 
delicate  and  elastic  as  the  steel  hairspring  of  a  watch. 

An  apparent  exception  to  the  general  rule  that 
corn  plants  build  their  stems  on  the  tubular  principle 
is  found  in  the  stalk  of  Indian  corn.  Here,  instead 
of  a  cavity,  as  in  the  straw  of  the  other  cereals,  there 
is  a  core  of  pith  through  which  run  lengthwise  a  few 
slender  threads.  But  we  have  only  to  remove  a  thin 
ring  of  the  outer  firm  material  of  a  maize  stalk  to  find 
that  the  inner  part,  although  forming  the  main  bulk 
of  the  stem,  is  in  reality  very  weak.  Indeed,  its  value 
as  an  element  of  strength  may  be  compared  to  a  fill- 
ing of  sponge  put  into  our  paper  tube.  Hence  we 
must  conclude  that  whatever  may  be  the  use  of  this 
core  of  pith,  the  strength  of  a  maize  stalk  is  gained 
chiefly  by  its  tubes  of  firm  material,  quite  as  truly  as 
in  the  case  of  the  other  cereals. 

These  tubes  of  the  maize  stalk,  it  should  also  be 
said,  are  not  always  entirely  cylindrical  (as  they  are 
in  the  straw  of  other  corn  plants),  but  at  several  of 
the  internodes  are  grooved  or  flattened  on  one  side. 
Those  of  my  readers  who  have  ever  made  a  "  corn 
stalk  fiddle  "  will  remember  that  it  was  this  peculiar 


CORN  PLANTS  IN  THE  FIELD.  17 

flattening  which  rendered  possible  the  manufacture  of 
that  rustic  instrument.  The  part  of  the  stalk  chosen 
for  the  purpose  always  includes  an  internode  which 
has  one  side  flattened  against  an  ear.  Along  the  edges 
of  this  flattened  part  run  woody  threads  of  remarkable 
toughness,  which  provide  the  strings  for  the  fiddle. 
With  a  sharp  knife  these  threads  are  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  internode  except  at  the  ends  where 
they  join  the  nodes,  and  are  then  stretched  over  a 
"  bridge  "  consisting  of  a  cross  slice  cut  from  a  neigh- 
boring internode.  When  played  upon  by  a  "  bow  " 
made  from  the  upper  and  more  slender  part  of  the 
stalk,  such  a  fiddle  will  give  forth  a  perceptible  if  not 
always  an  agreeable  tone. 

In  making  this  interesting  toy  one  is  led  to  observe 
certain  facts  which  help  to  an  understanding  of  the 
peculiar  form  of  the  maize  stalk.  Thus  the  fact  that 
those  internodes  which  are  grooved  have  each  an  ear 
on  the  grooved  side  clearly  indicates  that  this  form 
helps  to  make  room  for  the  growth  of  the  young  ear. 
Moreover,  any  weakening  which  may  result  from  the 
change  of  form  is  largely  offset  by  the  extra  strength 
of  the  woody  threads.  It  will  also  be  noticed  that 
usually  the  only  internodes  which  are  much  flattened 
are  those  that  come  well  above  the  base  and  hence 
are  not  so  much  subject  to  strain.  The  lower  inter- 
nodes, which  have  the  greatest  strain  to  bear,  are,  as 
we  should  expect,  almost  if  not  entirely  cylindrical. 
Finally,  it  may  be  remarked  that  even  the  flattened 
internodes  are  really  constructed  on  the  tubular  prin- 
ciple, although  they  are  not  quite  so  strong  as  if,  with 
the  same  amount  of  material,  they  had  been  cylindrical 
in  form. 

We  have  seen  that  the  tubular  form  of  stem  is  the 


18  CORN  PLANTS. 

one  which  makes  the  strongest  sort  of  a  column  that 
can  be  constructed  with  a  limited  amount  of  material. 
But  we  may  also  view  it  as  the  form  requiring  least 
material  to  be  used  in  making  a  column  which  must 
have  a  given  strength.  When  the  tubular  principle 
of  stem  construction  is  viewed  in  this  way,  it  becomes 
plain  that  corn  plants  accomplish  an  important  eco- 
nomy of  their  building  material.  This  saving  will  in 
part  account  for  the  remarkable  height  which  they 
attain  during  their  short  season  of  growth. 

Another  peculiarity  of  corn  plants  which  greatly 
favors  their  rapid  increase  in  height  is  the  way  in 
which  new  material  is  added  at  a  number  of  sepa- 
rate places  along  the  stem  all  at  the  same  time.  With 
most  plants,  as  is  well  known,  the  stem  becomes  longer 
by  the  addition  of  new  material  entirely  within  a 
young  and  tender  region  at  the  tip.  The  way  such  a 
plant  grows  in  length  we  may  liken  to  the  extension 
of  a  pocket  telescope,  when  the  sections  beginning 
with  the  lowest  are  pulled  out  one  at  a  time.  If  there 
were  four  sections  to  pull  out  and  we  took,  let  us  say, 
one  minute  in  pulling  out  each,  then  it  would  of  course 
require  four  minutes  to  bring  the  telescope  to  its  full 
length,  in  this  way.  Suppose,  however,  that  instead 
of  pulling  out  the  sections  one  at  a  time,  we  could  so 
manage  that  all  of  them  would  be  extending  at  the 
same  time  and  each  as  rapidly  as  before,  then,  plainly, 
the  telescope  would  reach  its  full  length  in  one  minute. 
That  is  to  say,  in  the  second  case,  we  should  be  pull- 
ing out  the  telescope  four  times  as  rapidly  as  in  the 
first,  or,  in  other  words,  as  many  times  faster  as  the 
number  of  the  sections  extending  at  once.  With  corn 
plants,  as  we  shall  see,  the  extraordinarily  rapid  in- 
crease in  length  of  stem  is  accomplished  by  having 


CORN  PLANTS  IN  THE  FIELD.  19 

many  sections  extending  at  once,  in  much  the  same 
way  as  in  our  imaginary  telescope. 

Let  us  now  see  what  we  actually  find  in  a  growing 
grain  stem.  During  the  period  of  rapid  elongation 
an  examination  of  one  of  the  older  internodes  even 
will  show  that  while  the  upper  portion  has  become  so 
firm  as  to  be  incapable  of  further  growth,  the  portion 
below  is  still  rather  tender,  and  near  its  base  it  is 
as  full  of  sap  and  vigor  as  the  tip  of  an  ordinary 
shoot  in  springtime.  Each  internode  by  having  its 
own  special  region  of  growth,  which  remains  active 
for  a  comparatively  long  while,  is  therefore  able  to 
add  to  its  length  at  the  same  time  as  the  growing 
parts  of  the  other  internodes.  Moreover  we  must  not 
forget  that  in  cereals,  as  well  as  in  other  plants,  the 
stem  grows  also  at  the  tip.  This  makes  the  extension 
of  the  separated  growth  regions  of  the  older  inter- 
nodes in  cornlike  stems  just  so  much  clear  gain  for 
the  plants  which  have  this  advantage.  A  large  share 
of  the  life  of  field  plants  is  an  upward  striving  for 
light  and  air.  The  weeds  which  grow  beside  our 
cereal  grains  are  for  the  most  part  easily  beaten  in 
this  race,  for  they  have  not  learned  the  secret  which 
makes  corn  plants  supreme.  It  would  be  hard  to  find 
among  self-supporting  plants  a  more  rapid  grower 
than  maize,  for  example,  which  sometimes  during  its 
few  months  of  growth  reaches  a  height  of  nearly 
twenty  feet. 

Thus  far  we  have  been  considering  the  stem  as  if  it 
were  the  only  part  concerned  in  maintaining  an  up- 
right position  against  the  pulls  of  weight  and  wind. 
In  any  fair  distribution  of  credit,  however,  the  leaves 
must  come  in  for  a  large  share.  The  earliest  green 
of  the  infant  plant,  which  makes  its  way  to  the  sur- 


20  CORN  PLANTS. 

face  of  the  ground,  is  leaf,  and  until  the  appearance 
of  a  "  tassel "  or  "  head  "  at  the  top  of  the  elongated 
stalk,  a  leaf-blade  always  forms  the  uppermost  part 
of  the  plant.  At  first  the  whole  leaf  is  rolled  into  a 
tube.  As  it  grows,  the  upper  part  unrolls  into  a  long 
flat  blade.  This  blade  bending  outward  exposes  the 
rolled  blade  of  a  younger  leaf.  This  younger  leaf 
may  in  turn  inclose  a  succession  of  still  younger 
leaves,  which  will  in  time  come  out,  but  until  they 
are  ready  to  appear,  each  of  them  is  infolded  by  the 
leaf  next  older  than  itself.  Unlike  the  blade,  the 
lower  part  of  each  leaf  even  when  full  grown  does 
not  unroll,  but  remains  as  a  tubular  sheath  tightly 
wrapped  about  the  stem.  It  thus  reinforces  the  in- 
ternode  in  the  best  possible  way,  especially  toward 
the  base  where  the  younger  growth  makes  support 
and  protection  most  necessary. 

By  this  admirable  arrangement  of  tube  within  tube, 
each  of  the  growing  parts  is  given  all  the  protection  it 
needs,  but  no  more  than  is  good  for  it  at  any  time. 
The  youngest  and  tenderest  leaves  are  the  most  pro- 
tected. As  they  grow  older  and  are  better  able  to 
protect  themselves,  they  are  permitted  more  and  more 
to  do  so,  and  at  the  same  time  they  become  of  in- 
creasing importance  as  guards  to  the  younger  growth 
within.  For  the  baby  leaves,  a  tube  forms  the  snug- 
gest sort  of  a  cradle.  Moreover,  the  tubular  form 
also  enables  the  leaf  to  do  stem's  work,  and  this  in 
two  ways :  first,  in  the  blade,  secondly,  in  the  sheath. 
The  blade,  so  long  as  it  remains  unrolled,  grows,  as 
we  have  seen,  with  remarkable  rapidity,  straight  up- 
wards in  advance  of  the  stem.  The  sheath,  by  retain- 
ing permanently  its  tubular  form,  continues  not  only 
to  protect  but  also  to  give  firm  support  to  the  lower 


CORN  PLANTS  IN  THE  FIELD.  21 

end  of  the  internode,  which  it  infolds.  In  military 
language,  it  may  be  said  that  the  blade  forms  the 
vanguard,  while  the  sheath  serves  as  the  rearguard  of 
the  column. 

Besides  the  mechanical  support  which  a  sheath  pro- 
vides and  the  protection  it  affords  as  a  covering,  there 
is  yet  another  advantage  gained  by  most  corn  plants 
from  having  the  lower  part  of  their  leaves  in  the  form 
of  a  cylindrical  tube  surrounding  the  stem.  It  will 
generally  be  found  that  the  sheath,  although  firmly 
fixed  at  its  lower  end,  revolves  more  or  less  freely  in 
its  upper  part  around  the  stem.  This  amount  of  play 
in  the  parts,  as  a  trial  readily  shows,  permits  the  blade 
to  swing  horizontally  through  nearly  half  a  circle  with- 
out bringing  to  bear  on  the  stem  more  than  a  very 
slight  twisting  strain.  The  importance  of  this  addi- 
tional provision  for  lessening  even  the  small  resistance 
offered  to  the  wind  by  these  delicately  responsive, 
pennon-like  leaves  will  be  apparent  when  we  remember 
to  what  severe  tests  such  field  plants  must  often  be 
subjected. 

In  maize  there  is  still  another  provision  for  lessen- 
ing the  strain  of  the  wind-tossed  leaves  on  the  stem. 
As  the  blade  elongates,  the  parts  toward  the  edge 
grow  much  more  than  the  middle  portion.  Hence, 
the  margin  is  thrown  into  the  ample  folds  which  give 
such  a  beautiful  wavy  effect  to  the  leaf.  (See  Fig.  3.) 
At  the  base  of  the  blade,  on  each  side  of  the  "  back- 
bone "  or  "  midrib,"  are  folds  of  especial  prominence. 
(F,  Figs.  6  and  7.)  When  the  wind  blows,  say  on 
the  left  side  of  a  blade,  the  folds  on  that  side  permit 
the  elastic  midrib  to  bend  readily  away  from  the  wind 
to  a  considerable  extent  before  the  edge  is  taut.  Mean- 
while, the  other  half  of  the  blade,  on  the  right  of  the 


22  CORN  PLANTS. 

midrib,  is  being  folded  into  more  of  a  ruffle ;  or  it 
may  be  that  the  blade  avoids  the  full  force  of  the 
wind  by  a  spiral  twist  which  is  made  particularly 
easy  on  account  of  the  ample  edges.  In  any  event 
the  prominent  folds  at  the  base  of  the  blade  permit 
the  midrib  to  bend  at  that  point  almost  as  if  hinged. 
Thus  in  these  largest  of  corn  leaves,  even  though  the 
sheath  be  immovable,  a  very  wide  swing  away  from 
the  wind  is  made  possible  by  simple  means. 

It  is  generally  found  to  be  true  in  mechanics  that 
wherever  special  delicacy  of  action  is  required  the 
danger  of  getting  out  of  order  is  correspondingly 
increased.  So  it  is  with  the  revolving  mechanism  of 
the  sheath.  Since  the  successful  operation  of  this 
depends  upon  the  easy  sliding  of  an  outer  tube  upon 
an  inner,  danger  arises  from  the  possibility  of  rain 
getting  in  between  the  tubes  and  carrying  along  par- 
ticles of  dust  or  agencies  of  decay.  Not  only  would 
this  interfere  more  or  less  with  the  free  swing  of  the 
leaf,  but  the  accumulation  of  such  particles,  together 
with  the  moisture,  might  seriously  injure  both  the 
stem  and  the  sheath.  Even  in  maize,  where  the 
sheath  is  immovable,  such  accumulations  would  be 
dangerous.  To  avoid  all  this  is  doubtless  the  pur- 
pose of  that  special  outgrowth  of  the  leaf  at  the 
junction  of  blade  and  sheath  shown  in  Figure  15, 
R.  This  outgrowth,  which  we  may  call  the  rain 
guard,  is  generally  pressed  close  to  the  stem,  and 
along  its  line  of  union  with  the  blade  there  is  formed 
a  broad  channel  to  right  and  left.  Whatever  water 
may  flow  along  the  blade  toward  the  stem  is  by  this 
means  carried  around  the  rain  guard  to  the  opposite 
side,  and  there  falls  down  over  the  sheath  to  the  next 
rain  guard  below.  Here  the  stream  is  similarly  led 


FIG.  6.  Maize,  leaf  at  rest.  B,  blade;  S, 
sheath;  F,  a  region  of  special  fullness.  (Ori- 
ginal.) 


FIG.  7.  The  same,  with  the  blade 
(B)  blown  to  the  right  and  thereby 
twisted,  and  a  deep  fold  made  at 
F,  thus  relieving  the  sheath  (8) 
and  the  stalk  of  strain.  (Origi- 
nal.) 


24  CORN  PLANTS. 

around  the  stem  once  more,  and  downward,  and  so  on 
till  it  reaches  the  roots.  Thus,  these  several  parts 
cooperate  to  lead  the  water  away  from  where  it  would 
be  harmful  to  where  it  is  of  greatest  use.  All  this 
may  be  readily  observed  by  watching  a  growing  grain 
plant  during  a  shower,  or  by  imitating  the  effect  of 
rain  by  a  watering-pot. 

When  we  were  considering  the  strains  coming  upon 
an  upright  stem,  we  found  that  these  must  steadily 
increase  towards  the  base,  and  thus  become  greater 
near  the  surface  of  the  earth.  This  extra  strain,  as 
will  be  remembered,  is  met  by  having  the  lower  inter- 
nodes  both  thicker  and  shorter  than  the  others.  We 
have  now  to  add  the  interesting  fact  that  the  forces  of 
wind  and  weight  are  still  further  resisted  by  certain 
special  roots  which  grow  out  from  nodes  near  the 
ground.  These  brace  roots,  as  they  are  called,  extend 
on  all  sides  obliquely  downwards  into  the  soil,  and 
thus  help  to  keep  the  stem  upright  in  much  the  same 
way  that  shrouds  support  the  mast  of  a  vessel.  As  we 
should  expect,  the  best  examples  of  such  roots  are 
afforded  by  maize  (Fig.  3),  for  this  is  by  far  the  tall- 
est of  the  corn  plants,  and  most  needs  the  extra  sup- 
port. The  brace  roots  of  maize  are  of  especial  interest 
also,  from  the  fact  that  they  often  become  remarkably 
stiff,  and  thus  serve  as  props  as  well  as  shroudlike 
stays. 

Were  it  not  that  corn  plants  have  such  effective 
means  of  resisting  or  avoiding  the  constant  pushes 
and  pulls  upon  every  part,  they  could  not  accomplish 
their  remarkable  growth  in  the  fields.  Under  all  or- 
dinary circumstances  these  brave  plants  manage  to 
hold  their  own  in  a  way  that  must  win  our  admiration. 
But  a  moment's  thought  will  show  that  however  strong 


CORN  PLANTS  IN  THE  FIELD.  25 

the  lower  parts  may  be  and  however  widely  spread- 
ing the  brace  roots,  their  strength  is  of  little  account 
unless  the  soil  affords  a  firm  anchorage.  Hence,  if  a 
violent  rainstorm  soften  the  ground  or  perhaps  wash 
away  so  much  of  the  earth  as  to  uncover  the  upper 
roots,  then  nothing  can  save  these  plants  from  being 
blown  over  flat  upon  the  ground.  To  any  one  not 
familiar  with  the  ways  of  corn  plants,  a  field  of  grain 
overthrown  seems  hopelessly  ruined.  Yet  the  farmer 
knows  better.  Experience  tells  him  that  usually  a 
few  hours  after  such  a  storm  has  cleared  away  nearly 
every  stalk  will  be  found  standing  up  as  straight  as 
ever.  In  reality  to  have  been  blown  down  was  per- 
haps the  best  thing  that  could  have  happened  to  the 
plants  under  the  circumstances,  for  if  the  lower  parts 
had  not  given  way  they  might  have  been  seriously 
injured. 

How  is  this  fortunate  recovery  accomplished? 
Again  the  leaf  sheath  comes  to  the  rescue.  In  order 
to  understand  just  what  has  taken  place,  we  need  to 
examine  with  special  care  the  parts  near  one  of  the 
lower  nodes.  In  the  oat,  for  example  (Fig.  14  I.),  on 
the  outside  of  the  stalk  a  swollen  ring  is  to  be  seen  (R) 
which  at  first  sight  might  be  taken  ,for  a  part  of  the 
stem  at  the  place  of  a  partition.  When,  however,  we 
cut  through  the  whole  lengthwise,  as  in  Figure  14  II., 
the  ring  is  found  to  be  situated  entirely  above  the 
partition,  and  to  constitute  in  fact  the  base  of  the 
sheath.  Even  after  the  sheath  is  fully  grown  and 
has  become  stiffened  as  a  support  for  the  internode, 
this  ring  still  retains  its  original  sappy  condition. 
Hence,  the  base  of  the  sheath  is  ready  at  any  time  to 
grow  again  in  case  of  need.  It  does  grow,  and  in  a 
peculiar  manner,  whenever  the  parts  are  placed  in  an 


26  CORN  PLANTS. 

unnatural  position.  So  long  as  the  axis  points  up- 
wards the  power  of  growth  is  not  awakened  ;  but  let 
it  point  for  a  while  in  any  other  direction  and  the 
undermost  part  of  the  ring  is  stimulated  to  elongate. 

This  one-sided  growth  produces  a  bend  in  the  stalk 
where  the  ring  comes.  The  stem  at  this  point,  fol- 
lowing the  same  curve  as  the  sheath  ring,  causes  the 
parts  above  to  come  gradually  into  an  upright  position. 
That  is  to  say,  the  stalk  rises  as  if  by  a  self-acting 
hinge.  Figure  14  III.  shows  part  of  an  oat  stalk 
which  has  become  erect  in  this  way.  All  corn  plants, 
at  least  when  their  stalks  are  growing  vigorously,  have 
much  the  same  power  of  recovery  from  the  effects  of 
violent  storms.  With  maize,  however,  there  is  this 
difference,  that  instead  of  having  a  sheath  ring  play 
the  most  important  part  in  bending  the  stalk,  it  de- 
pends in  this  matter  mainly  upon  its  stout  lower  inter- 
nodes.  These  retain  for  a  considerable  time  the  same 
power  of  curving  in  case  of  need  as  displayed  by  a 
sheath  ring. 

Defenses  against  Drought. 

Rainstorms,  for  all  their  violence,  are  not  so  hard 
a  trial  for  field  plants  as  drought.  It  has  been  esti- 
mated that  wheat,  under  ordinarily  favorable  condi- 
tions, absorbs  from  the  earth,  and  transpires,  or 
breathes  out  through  its  foliage  each  day,  an  amount 
of  water  about  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  plant.  In 
an  acre  of  wheat,  during  the  course  of  the  growing 
season,  this  would  mean  a  loss  of  two  hundred  and 
fifty  tons.  Long  continuance  of  dry  wind  and  hot 
sun,  by  promoting  loss  of  moisture  from  the  foliage, 
would  increase  very  much  the  amount  thus  withdrawn 
each  day.  At  the  same  time,  the  supply  of  rain  hav- 


FIG.  8.  Maize.  I.  A  young  ear  cut  through  the  middle  lengthwise.  SK,  SK,  the 
main  stalk  ;  SK',  the  branch  stalk  which  bears  the  ear ;  SH,  sheath  of  the  leaf 
infolding  the  whole  ear;  R  G,  ram  guard;  B,  blade  of  the  same  leaf;  H,  husks; 
So,  stigmas  ("  silk  ")  protruding  beyond  the  husks. 

H.  A  single  spikelet  of  the  ear,  showing  the  bracts  (C,  C/,  D,  E,  D',  E/)  and 
the  ovary  (O)  and  lower  part  of  the  style  (Sr)  of  the  single  pistil.  Enlarged. 

III.  Upper  part  of  stigma,  showing  the  delicate  hairs  that  cover  it.  Enlarged. 
\0riginal.) 


28  CORN  PLANTS. 

ing  ceased,  there  would  be  less  and  less  moisture  to 
draw  from  in  the  ground.  We  know  that  the  growth 
of  plants  is  retarded  if  their  active  parts  are  deprived 
of  even  a  small  share  of  the  large  amount  of  water 
they  ordinarily  contain  ;  while  if  the  amount  be  much 
decreased  they  die.  It  thus  appears  that  drought 
offers  a  most  serious  problem  to  plants  of  the  field. 
There  are  two  ways  open  to  them  for  meeting  the 
difficulty ;  they  may  extend  their  roots  as  far  as  pos- 
sible into  the  deeper  and  moister  layers  of  the  soil,  or 
they  may  in  some  way  check  the  loss  of  water  from 
their  leaves.  Corn  plants  do  both. 

The  depth  to  which  the  roots  of  cereals  will  some- 
times penetrate  is  not  a  little  remarkable.  No  true 
idea  of  their  full  length  may  be  gained  by  simply 
pulling  up  the  roots  from  the  soil,  for  they  are  so  slen- 
der as  to  be  easily  broken  far  above  the  tip.  The 
most  satisfactory  way  is  that  described  in  the  follow- 
ing account  of  observations  carried  on  by  a  German 
botanist :  "  An  excavation  was  made  in  the  field  to 
the  depth  of  six  feet,  and  a  stream  of  water  was  di- 
rected against  the  vertical  wall  of  soil  until  it  was 
washed  away,  so  that  the  roots  of  the  plant  growing 
in  it  were  laid  bare.  The  roots  thus  exposed  in  a 
field  of  rye  ...  presented  the  appearance  of  a  mat 
or  felt  of  white  fibres,  to  a  depth  of  about  four  feet 
from  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  roots  of  winter 
wheat l  he  observed  at  a  depth  of  seven  feet,  in  a  light 
subsoil,  forty-seven  days  after  sowing."  2  Such  deep 

1  The  name  "  winter  wheat  "  is  applied  to  those  sorts  which 
are  sown  in  the  fall,  live  over  the  winter,  and  ripen  the  follow- 
ing  season.     "  Spring   or   summer  wheat "  is   planted   in   the 
spring,  and  harvested  before  cold  weather. 

2  Johnson's  How  Crops  Grow. 


CORN  PLANTS  IN  THE  FIELD.  29 

penetration  of  the  parts  through  which  absorption 
takes  place  cannot  fail  to  give  to  these  plants  a  great 
advantage  in  times  of  drought. 

Yet  even  the  reserve  supply  of  water  in  the  lower 
layers  of  the  soil  would  soon  become  exhausted  if 
transpiration  from  the  leaves  went  on  as  freely  as 
under  ordinary  circumstances.  This  deep-lying  water 
is  the  plant's  last  resource.  Hence  the  special  need 
for  stringent  economy  of  this  reserve,  by  checking 
as  much  as  possible  all  needless  transpiration.  We 
know  that  the  loss  of  moisture  from  any  part  depends 
largely  upon  the  extent  of  surface  exposed  to  the  sur- 
rounding air.  A  comparison  of  wheat  plants  from 
dry  and  from  moist  localities  has  shown  that  leaves  of 
the  former  are  narrower  than  those  of  the  latter,  of  the 
same  length,  thus  giving  a  helpful  reduction  of  leaf 
surface  in  the  drier  localities.  Perhaps  a  similar  com- 
parison of  other  corn  plants  from  like  localities  might 
show  similar  difference  in  the  leaves.  It  is  not  pos- 
sible, however,  for  corn  plants  to  have  their  leaf-blades 
much  narrower  than  they  generally  are,  without  at 
the  same  time  losing  much  of  the  benefit  which  comes 
from  good  exposure  to  sunlight. 

Wh&t  these  plants  need  above  all  for  safety  and 
success  in  the  field  is  some  means  of  changing  the 
form  of  their  leaf-blades  at  different  times.  Only 
thus  can  a  corn  plant  avoid  the  dangers  of  over-drying 
at  one  time,  and  yet  at  another  time  be  able  to  take 
full  advantage  of  the  sunshine.  Fortunately  just  such 
a  ready  adjustment  to  varying  conditions  is  made  pos- 
sible by  the  easy  change  from  the  expanded  to  the 
tubular  form  of  blade.  It  will  be  remembered  that 
the  leaf -blades  in  all  cereals,  so  long  as  they  are  young 
and  so  in  special  danger  of  wilting  from  too  rapid 


30  CORN  PLANTS. 

transpiration,  retain  the  tubular  form,  and  thus  expose 
only  a  small  portion  of  their  surface  to  the  drying 
action  of  the  air.  Yet  even  after  they  have  become 
full  grown  and  flat,  the  blades  seem  never  to  forget 
h'ow  well  the  earlier  form  had  served  their  needs ;  for 
whenever  it  becomes  necessary  to  check  waste  of 
moisture,  the  blade  assumes  once  more  as  nearly  as 
possible  the  form  it  had  when  young.  That  is  to  say, 
the  edges  roll  inwards  so  as  to  cover  the  upper  sur- 
face, and  in  some  instances  overlap  in  order  to  reduce 
still  more  the  amount  of  surface  exposed.  In  the 
ample  leaves  of  maize  not  only  do  parts  of  the  edge 
roll  inwards,  but  the  two  halves  of  the  blade  fold  to- 
gether as  if  hinged  at  the  midrib.  Among  farmers 
this  "  curling  of  the  corn  "  is  recognized  as  one  of  the 
most  significant  signs  of  drought. 

Much  the  same  tubular  rolling  of  the  leaves  may 
be  seen  also  in  pasture  grasses  under  similar  circum- 
stances or  when  the  plants  are  being  dried  for  hay. 
In  all  cases,  when  there  is  again  sufficient  moisture, 
the  blade  becomes  flat  as  before.  This  power  of  re- 
suming the  expanded  form  promptly  on  the  return  of 
favorable  conditions  is,  as  we  have  seen,  scarcely  less 
important  than  the  power  of  "curling."  We  know 
that  the  great  work  of  food-making,  which  is  what 
leaves  are  chiefly  for,  can  be  done  to  best  advantage 
only  when  the  blade  is  provided  with  plenty  of  moist- 
ure and  spread  out  to  receive  the  rays  of  the  sun. 

Food-making  and  Growth. 

Food-making  is  the  main  purpose  of  the  plant  dur- 
ing what  we  may  call  the  youthful  period  of  its  exist- 
ence. To  this  end  all  the  parts  cooperate  from  the 
beginning.  Some  of  the  parts  help  by  getting  the 


CORN  PLANTS  IN  THE  FIELD.  31 

necessary  raw  materials  from  the  earth  and  air. 
Other  parts  serve  by  bringing  these  materials  together 
in  the  foliage.  Here  the  green  parts  use  the  power 
of  sunlight  to  make  over  these  crude  substances  into 
food  in  a  way  that  only  green  plants  can  do.  Finally 
there  are  other  parts  which  carry  off  most  of  this  pre- 
cious product,  in  the  form  of  a  nutritious  sap,  to  those 
portions  of  the  plant  which  are  actively  engaged  in 
building  new  structures  or  at  least  in  doing  other  work 
than  food-making.  It  is  true  that  much  of  the  inner 
workings  of  these  various  parts  we  can  only  guess  at, 
for  the  plant  is  like  a  factory  with  the  discouraging 
sign  "  no  admittance."  Yet  even  such  general  results 
of  the  work  as  may  be  seen  from  the  outside  are 
enough  to  show  us  that  the  whole  is  run  on  a  singu- 
larly perfect  system.  There  is  no  hiding  the  fact 
that  so  long  as  the  plant  is  young  there  is  a  rapid 
growth  of  the  organs  which  are  especially  concerned 
in  making  food,  namely,  the  roots,  stems,  and  leaves. 
We  find,  also,  that  the  plant  makes  provision,  as  early 
as  possible,  for  avoiding  or  repairing  injury  to  those 
organs  from  wind,  rain,  or  drought.  Thus  we  may 
see  that  our  self-building  food-factory  is  governed  by 
advanced  business  methods.  From  the  start,  the  pol- 
icy pursued  is  to  devote  at  once  as  much  as  possible 
of  the  product  of  manufacture  to  building  additions 
to  the  establishment  and  to  insuring  its  future  safety. 
It  is  as  if  there  were  a  wise  and  enterprising  manager 
in  charge  of  its  affairs. 

The  same  spirit  of  enterprise  which  leads  these 
plants  to  take  fullest  advantage  of  their  opportunities 
appears  also  in  the  establishment  of  what  we  may  call 
"  branch  factories."  That  is  to  say,  under  favorable 
circumstances,  extra  stalks  are  developed  as  out- 


32  CORN  PLANTS. 

growths  from  near  the  base  of  the  main  stem.  (See 
Figures  12  and  13.)  These  additional  stalks  are  called 
"  tillers."  Each  may  grow  into  a  leafy  grain-bearing 
shoot  like  that  from  which  it  sprang.  Each,  more- 
over, sends  out  its  own  set  of  roots  which  enable  it 
very  soon  to  obtain  for  itself  the  necessary  materials 
from  the  soil  without  depending  upon  the  supply  ab- 
sorbed by  the  main  roots.  So  complete  is  the  inde- 
pendence thus  secured  that  even  if  the  connection 
with  the  main  stem  should  happen  to  be  severed  the 
new  branch  can  live  on  vigorously  as  a  separate  plant 
forming  tillers  of  its  own.  This  habit  of  tillering  is 
especially  well  shown  in  wheat,  oats,  and  rye,  which 
not  uncommonly  produce  as  many  as  twenty  stalks  or 
more  from  one. 

At  the  Botanic  Garden  in  Cambridge,  England,  an 
experimenter  who  was  curious  to  see  how  far  this 
power  might  be  taken  advantage  of  to  increase  the 
yield  from  a  single  seed  made  the  following  trial.  A 
kernel  of  common  red  wheat  sown  in  June  was  found 
in  August  to  have  produced  a  plant  so  well  tillered 
that  it  could  be  divided  into  eighteen  separate  plants. 
These  being  transplanted  to  give  room  for  further  de- 
velopment were  found  in  the  autumn  to  have  branched 
so  freely  as  to  permit  dividing  them  again  into  sixty- 
seven  plants.  After  resting  over  the  winter  they 
resumed  their  vigorous  growth  in  the  spring,  and  til- 
lered so  well  that  a  third  division  gave  five  hundred 
plants.  These  being  transplanted  were  allowed  to  re- 
main undisturbed  until  harvest,  when  it  was  found 
that  some  had  produced  over  one  hundred  grain-bear- 
ing branches.  Altogether,  there  were  21,109  heads 
yielding  forty-seven  pounds,  seven  ounces,  of  clear 
corn,  or  about  576,840  kernels  as  the  product  of  a 


FIG.  9.  Maize,  a  ripe  kernel  cut  lengthwise 
through  the  germ,  c,  c,  the  outer  layer  or 
"hull";  n,  the  base  of  the  style;  fs,  stalklet; 
eg,  hard, yellowish  part  of  seed  food;  etc,  whiter 
portion  of  seed  food;  sc,  sc,  scutellum  of  the 
germ;  ss,  its  point;  e,  its  skin;  k,  the  leaves  of 
the  germ  packed  closely  in  a  bud;  st,  stem-part 
of  the  germ;  w  (below),  the  main  root  protected 
by  a  special  covering  or  root  sheath  (ws); 
w  (above),  secondary  root.  Enlarged  about  6 
diameters.  (Sachs.) 


Flo.  10.  Maize,  kernels  sprouting. 

I.  Kernel  seen  from  the  germ  side.    The  main 
root    (w)  has    just    broken    through  the    root 
sheath  (ws).    k  shows  where  the  young  leaves 

and  stem  are  still  incased,  and  e,  the  part  of  the  kernel  where  the  food  is  stored. 
A,  the  germ  removed,  showing  in  front  view  the  scutellum  (so)  broken  through, 
and  the  margins  of  the  rift  (r,  r)  spread  apart.  B,  the  same  in  side  view. 

II.  The  same  as  I,  further  advanced,  showing,  besides  the  more  elongated  root, 
the  leaf  cylinder  (b)  protruded  beyond  the  covering  (I),  which  it  has  pushed  aside. 

UI.  The  same,  still  further  advanced;  side  view.    V,  b",  young  leaves;  w',  to", 
W",  secondary  roots.    Natural  size.     (Sachs.) 


34  CORN  PLANTS. 

single  seed.  The  gardener  believed  that  if  he  had 
divided  the  plants  once  more  in  the  spring  (as  he  had 
done  successfully  in  a  previous  experiment)  the  yield 
would  have  been  increased  fourfold. 

IV.    How  CORN  PLANTS  PROVIDE  FOR  THEIR 
OFFSPRING. 

So  far  as  we  have  yet  considered  the  life  of  corn 
plants,  we  have  found  them  devoting  their  energies 
mainly  to  the  making  of  food.  The  only  use  we  have 
seen  the  plant  make  of  this  food  is  the  building  of 
additional  food-making  parts.  Of  course  such  in- 
crease of  facilities  for  food-making  cannot  go  on  inde- 
finitely, even  though  the  tiller-branches  become  sepa- 
rated as  independent  plants.  Sooner  or  later  every 
individual  plant  must  die.  Hence  the  necessity  for 
providing  some  means  of  starting  new  plants  like  it- 
self. In  corn  plants  the  life  of  the  kind  is  continued 
from  generation  to  generation  by  means  of  seeds  con- 
taining the  beginnings  of  offspring.  To  produce  such 
offspring  and  provide  for  their  welfare  becomes  thus 
the  final  duty  of  the  plant. 

Seed-making. 

Just  as  soon  as  its  food-making  arrangements  are 
in  good  running  order,  the  plant  begins  to  devote  a 
share  of  its  surplus  to  the  formation  of  new  parts  espe- 
cially fitted  to  bring  the  seeds  to  perfection.  These 
new  parts  develop  more  and  more  rapidly  as  the 
season  advances,  and  so  consume  a  larger  and  larger 
share  of  food,  until  finally,  as  we  shall  see,  they  take 
up  about  all  the  plant  can  make. 

The  parts  which  are  especially  concerned  in  perfect- 
ing the  seeds  present  some  interesting  differences 


PROVISION  FOR   OFFSPRING  35 

from  the  parts  we  have  already  examined.  This  we 
should  expect,  in  view  of  the  very  different  kind  of 
service  they  have  to  render.  We  shall  find,  also,  that 
they  show  some  significant  resemblances  to  those  other 
parts,  as  if  old  forms  had  been,  in  a  way,  made  over 
for  new  uses.  Before  we  can  well  understand  how 
the  new  parts  serve  their  purpose  we  must  carefully 
examine  their  peculiarities. 

The  Floral  Parts. 

If  we  examine  a  corn  plant  soon  after  the  last  leaf 
has  appeared,  there  will  be  seen  peeping  out  from  its 
protecting  folds  a  crowded  cluster  of  numerous,  small, 
delicate  parts  which,  upon  further  growth,  are  found 
to  be  grouped  into  clusters  of  clusters.  (Figures  12, 
13,  and  16.)  This  compound  cluster  constitutes  what 
botanists  call  the  inflorescence  or  floral  portion  of  the 
plant,  although  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  flowers 
which  it  includes  are  very  different  in  appearance 
from  what  are  ordinarily  so  called.  They  agree  with 
other  flowers,  however,  in  producing  seeds.  When 
this  is  accomplished,  the  inflorescence  becomes  the 
"  head  "  or  "  ear  "  of  grain.  All  the  different  corn 
plants  agree  in  having  the  inflorescence  borne  at  the 
top  of  the  stalk  as  a  termination  to  its  growth. 

Perhaps  the  most  striking  difference  among  grain 
plants  is  that  which  distinguishes  the  floral  clusters  of 
maize  from  all  the  others.  As  will  be  seen  from  Fig- 
ures 12,  20,  23,  25,  and  28,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  and 
rice,  have  in  each  case  but  one  sort  of  inflorescence, 
while  maize  (Fig.  3)  has  the  two  sorts  ordinarily 
known  as  the  "tassel"  (T)  and  the  "ear"  (E). 
Moreover,  the  ears  of  maize  appear  as  outgrowths 
from  the  side  of  the  corn  stalk,  and  this  may  seem  to 


36  CORN  PLANTS. 

contradict  the  statement  made  above  that  the  flower 
clusters  of  cereals  always  terminate  the  stalk.  In 
this  respect,  however,  these  ears  do  not  really  differ 
from  the  terminal  clusters  borne  by  the  tiller-stalks 
of  this  and  other  grains.  If  we  cut  down  through 
an  ear,  as  shown  in  Figure  8,  we  find  that  it  is  borne 
on  the  end  of  a  stalk  which  is  essentially  like  that  of 
a  tiller  except  that  the  ear-branch  arises  further  up 
on  the  main  stem  and  is  shorter.  Yet  for  all  that, 
the  number  of  internodes  is  about  the  same  as  in  the 
main  stalk. 

One  marked  result  of  the  way  in  which  the  stalk 
of  a  maize  ear  is  shortened  appears  in  the  crowding 
of  its  leaves.  Along  with  this  goes  a  change  in  form 
which  fits  them  for  serving  as  husks  to  protect  the 
tender  parts  within.  It  will  be  remembered  that  so 
long  as  the  whole  branch  is  tender,  and  thus  in  need 
of  protection,  it  is  completely  covered  by  a  leaf  sheath 
belonging  to  the  main  stem.  As  the  husks  elongate, 
their  upper  parts  emerge  from  the  sheath  and  the  out- 
ermost husks  spread  their  blades  on  either  side.  In 
comparison  with  the  leaves  of  the  main  stem  these 
outer  husk  leaves  are  seen  to  have  a  smaller  blade 
and  rain  guard,  but  as  large  a  sheath.  If  now  we 
compare  with  these  outer  husks  the  ones  which  they 
inclose,  we  find  that  both  blade  and  rain  guard  be- 
come smaller  and  smaller  as  we  proceed  inward  until 
finally  we  find  nothing  but  pale,  papery  sheaths  with 
no  trace  of  blade  or  rain  guard  whatever.  This  grad- 
ual series  of  forms  helps  us  to  see  that  even  the  inner- 
most husks,  although  so  unleaflike  in  appearance,  are 
really  leaves.  Moreover  it  is  plain  that  since  they  are 
destined  to  remain  entirely  covered  by  the  outer 
husks,  these  inner  wrappers  could  make  no  use  of 


PROVISION  FOR   OFFSPRING 


37 


either  blade,  rain  guard,  or  the  green  coloring-matter 
of  foliage.  Hence  there  is  no  occasion  for  their  being 
more  leaflike  than  they  are. 

Leaving  the  other  parts  of  the  maize  ear  to  be  con- 
sidered presently,  let  us 
now  see  what  may  be 
found  in  the  flower  clus- 
ters of  the  other  cereals. 
We  will  begin  with  the 
floral  parts  of  the  oat 
(Figs.  16  and  17)  as  af- 
fording a  good  standard 
with  which  to  compare 
the  others.  As  already 
observed,  the  upper  part 
of  the  main  stalk  is  con- 
tinued into  the  inflores- 
cence, where  it  gives  off 
several  branches  which 
bear  the  little  clusters  or 
spikelets.  (B,  Fig.  16.) 
The  spikelets  consist  of 
a  few  parchment  -  like, 
sheathing  organs  (sug- 
gesting miniature  husks) 
inclosing  tender  parts 
within.  In  fact  it  is 
chiefly  in  size  that  these 
little  husks  differ  from 
the  large  ones  of  maize. 

The  husks  of  both  must  be  looked  upon  as  leaves  of 
the  flower  cluster  which  differ  from  foliage  leaves 
mainly  in  such  particulars  as  fit  them  for  the  special 
service  they  have  to  perform.  Leaves  which  are  thus 


Fio.  11.  Coyote  corn,  from  Moro  Leon, 
Mexico.  An  ear  (natural  size)  with  husks 
partly  removed.  The  rachis  or  cob, 
when  ripe,  breaks  readily  into  separate 
sections.  (Drawn  by  the  author  from  a 
specimen  in  the  Herbarium  of  Harvard 
University.) 


38  CORN  PLANTS. 

peculiarly  developed  in  connection  with  a  flower  clus- 
ter are  called  bracts.  The  outermost  bracts  of  the 
oat  (C,  Figs.  16  and  17),  like  the  inner  husks  of 
maize,  consist  wholly  of  what  corresponds  to  a  leaf 
sheath.  Commonly  one  or  more  of  the  inner  bracts 
of  the  oat  (D)  resemble  the  outer  ones  of  maize  in 
having  also  a  part  corresponding  to  a  leaf-blade  which 
here  takes  the  form  of  a  slender  projection  (B,  Fig. 
17).  This  delicate  outgrowth  is  called  an  awn.  It 
is  the  development  of  such  awns  that  gives  us  the 
"  bearded  "  varieties  of  grain.  In  the  oat,  as  will  be 
seen,  the  awn  stands  out  from  the  sheath  at  an  angle 
much  as  a  blade  does.  The  sheath,  moreover,  is  pro- 
longed beyond  the  base  of  the  awn,  thus  taking  the 
place  of  a  rain  guard.  We  can  hardly  suppose,  how- 
ever, that  this  part  of  the  oat  bract  is  of  much  use  in 
keeping  out  the  rain. 

When  the  plant  is  in  bloom  the  bracts  spread  suffi- 
ciently to  allow  certain  parts  of  the  flowers  they  in- 
close to  push  out  into  view.  (5,  Fig.  16.)  From  each 
flower  appear  three  little  double  sacks,  the  anthers, 
each  borne  on  a  slender  thread,  the  filament ;  and 
two  small  feathery  affairs  called  the  stigmas.  If  we 
cut  such  a  spikelet  in  half  from  the  stalk  up,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  17,  the  innermost  floral  parts  may  be  seen 
also.  In  the  centre  of  the  flower  we  find  a  rounded 
body,  the  ovary  (Ov),  which  is  a  thin-walled  case  con- 
taining a  tiny  egglike  structure,  the  ovule  (OL), 
that  ripens  into  a  seed.  Each  stigma  (S&)  is  con- 
nected with  the  ovary  by  a  short  stalk  known  as  the 
style  (SY).  Of  these  there  are  two  to  an  ovary,  as 
shown  in  «/,  Fig.  16 :  styles,  stigmas,  and  ovary  taken 
together  form  the  pistil  of  the  flower.  Outside  of 
this  come  the  filaments  (F,  F',  Fig.  17)  each  bearing 


PROVISION  FOR   OFFSPRING.  39 

an  anther  (R  A,  R  A'),  from  which  when  mature 
there  may  be  shaken  out  through  special  openings  in- 
numerable yellow,  dustlike  particles  called  pollen  (P). 
A  filament  with  its  anther  make  up  a  stamen.  At 
the  base  of  the  flower  is  a  pair  of  minute  scales,  the 
lodicules  (G,  Figs.  16  and  17),  which  are  of  use  in 
pushing  apart  the  bracts  so  as  to  expose  the  anthers 
and  stigmas  when  the  proper  time  arrives.  All  these 
floral  parts  are  shown  at  an  earlier  stage  of  their 
development  in  the  younger  unopened  flower  Y  F, 
Fig.  17. 

There  remains  to  be  mentioned  only  one  more  por- 
tion of  the  oat  spikelet.  This  is  a  pair  of  very  small 
bracts  (R  F,  Fig.  17)  borne  at  the  tip  of  the  little 
rachis  (R')«  If  we  separate  these  tiny  bracts  there  is 
found  to  be  no  flower  within.  We  may  regard  them 
as  indicating  the  place  where  a  flower  might  have 
been  expected  but  where  none  is  developed. 

A  comparison  of  the  inflorescences  of  the  other 
cereals  (Figs.  4,  8,  21,  23,  27,  and  30)  with  the  flow- 
ering portion  of  the  oat  will  show  that  in  spite  of 
more  or  less  striking  differences  of  detail  the  general 
make-up  is  very  much  the  same  in  all.  That  is  to 
say,  all  have  the  same  floral  parts  inclosed  in  bracts 
which  may  be  readily  recognized  as  such,  although  dif- 
fering often  considerably  in  size  and  form. 

The  reader  may  find  it  of  interest  to  notice  the  fol- 
lowing peculiarities  which  serve  to  distinguish  the 
different  kinds  of  corn  plants  when  in  blossom.  At- 
tention has  already  been  called  to  the  fact  that  maize 
has  two  sorts  of  inflorescence,  the  tassel  and  the  ear, 
while  in  each  of  the  other  cereals  there  is  only  one 
sort  of  inflorescence.  Of  these  latter,  oats  (Figs.  12, 
13  and  16)  and  rice  (Figs.  20  and  21)  have  their 


40  CORN  PLANTS. 

spikelets  borne  on  rather  long  slender  stalks,  forming 
thus  a  loose  open  cluster  ;  while  rye  (Figs.  23  and  24, 
.#),  wheat  (Figs.  25-27),  and  barley  (Figs.  28-30), 
have  their  spikelets  very  short-stalked  and  crowded, 
thus  forming  a  compact  spike  or  "  head."  Rice  dif- 
fers from  oats  in  having,  instead  of  several  flowers 
within  each  spikelet,  only  a  single  flower  which  is  like 
those  of  the  oat  except  that  it  has  six  stamens,  and 
has  the  awns  when  present  borne  on  the  very  tip  of 
the  bract.  (See  Fig.  22.) 

In  rye,  wheat,  and  barley,  the  awns  when  present 
grow  like  those  of  rice,  from  the  tip  of  the  bract,  and 
being  close  together  give  the  beautiful  "  bearded  " 
appearance  to  the  spikes  of  these  grains.  There  re- 
sults also  from  this  crowding  of  the  spikelets  the  curi- 
ous flattened  and  zigzag  form  of  the  rachis  or  "  back- 
bone "  of  the  spike  shown  at  R,  Fig.  27.  Rye  and 
wheat  agree  in  having  a  single  spikelet  produced  at 
each  node  of  the  rachis  (Figs.  24,  B,  and  27,  A),  and 
in  that  particular  they  differ  from  barley,  which  has 
three  spikelets  at  a  node.  (Fig.  30,  J53.)  Rye  has 
two  flowers  in  each  spikelet.  Wheat  has  several  flow- 
ers in  each  spikelet  except  a  few  of  the  lower  ones, 
which  are  very  small  and  flowerless.  (See  Figs.  25 
and  26.)  Barley  has  a  single  flower  in  each  well-de- 
veloped spikelet  (see  Fig.  30,  B,  B1),  but  of  such 
spikelets  there  may  be  only  one  or  two  in  each  group 
of  three ;  in  that  case  the  other  spikelets  are  flower- 
less  and  appear  in  rows  from  top  to  bottom  of  the 
spike.  (Fig.  29.)  Some  kinds  of  barley  have  part  of 
their  flowers  containing  stamens  but  no  pistil. 

All  the  flowers  of  the  maize  tassel  are  like  those  of 
the  barley  just  mentioned,  in  having  stamens  alone. 
(Fig.  4.)  The  ear  of  Indian  corn  is  an  enormously 


PROVISION  FOR   OFFSPRING.  41 

developed  spike  bearing  a  large  number  of  spikelets, 
in  each  of  which  a  single  pistil  is  produced,  but  no 
stamens.  (Fig.  8,  I.  II.)  The  pistil  differs  from 
those  of  the  other  cereals'  chiefly  in  having  an  exceed- 
ingly elongated  style  and  stigma  (Sa)  which  form 
the  "  silk  "  of  the  ear.  The  bracts  belonging  to  these 
hidden  flowers  of  the  maize  ear  are  very  delicate  (II. 
C,  C',  D,  E,  D',  E',),  and  form  the  thin  papery  chaff 
which  remains  attached  to  the  cob  when  the  kernels 
are  removed. 

From  what  has  been  said  of  the  flower  clusters  of 
the  various  cereals,  it  will  be  seen  that  however  much 
the  parts  differ  in  minor  details  of  structure  and 
arrangement,  they  are  all  built  upon  essentially  the 
same  plan,  although  there  is  more  or  less  modification 
according  to  need.  This  fundamental  plan  may  be 
expressed  in  a  general  way  as  follows :  the  flowers 
consist  typically  of  three  stamens  and  a  single  pistil, 
although  sometimes  the  number  of  stamens  is  doubled, 
and  in  other  cases,  either  stamens  or  pistil,  or  both, 
may  be  wanting.  Around  these  floral  organs  are  pro- 
tective bracts  or  inflorescence  leaves,  which  may  be 
more  or  less  unleaflike  in  form,  but  which  are  like 
the  other  leaves  of  the  plant  in  being  arranged  in  two 
ranks  on  opposite  sides  of  the  stem  which  bears  them. 
In  having  their  flower  clusters  constructed  in  this  way 
corn  plants  resemble  the  familiar  wild  grasses  of  pas- 
ture and  meadow.  Indeed,  most  of  the  features  of 
structure  we  have  described  as  belonging  to  cereals, 
and  much  of  what  we  have  still  to  consider,  are  found 
also  in  these  other  plants.  Botanists  recognize  the 
closeness  of  this  resemblance  by  including  cereals 
among  the  members  of  the  "  grass  family."  This  is 
as  much  as  to  say  that  the  cereals  are  grasses  which 


42  CORN  PLANTS. 

have  come  to  be  cultivated  especially  for  their  edible 
grains,  much  as  "  herd's  grass  "  has  come  to  be  raised 
for  its  herbage. 

The  Beginning  of  the  Seed. 

Our  study  of  the  floral  organs  of  corn  plants  has 
now  prepared  us  for  considering  the  question  as  to 
how  these  parts  act  together  for  the  perfecting  of 
seeds.  If  we  ask  why  it  is  that  so  many  parts  are 
developed  for  this  purpose,  and  why  they  are  so 
strangely  complicated  in  structure,  the  answer  is  that 
all  this  elaborate  preparation  contributes  to  the  wel- 
fare of  the  plant's  offspring.  It  is  now  known  to  be 
a  great  benefit  for  offspring  to  have  when  possible 
two  parents,  so  that  advantageous  characteristics 
inherited  from  each  may  be  combined.  This  key 
enables  the  botanist  of  to-day  to  unlock  some  of 
Nature's  secrets  which  have  baffled  mankind  for  ages. 

We  have  seen  that  an  ovary  contains  an  ovule 
ready  to  grow  into  a  seed.  It  does  grow  provided 
some  pollen  from  a  plant  of  the  same  sort  falls  upon 
the  stigma ;  otherwise  no  seed  is  developed.  Hence, 
if  a  farmer  should  go  through  his  maize  field  and  cut 
off  all  the  tassels  as  soon  as  they  appeared,  he  would 
find  the  ears  at  harvest  time  sadly  lacking  in  kernels. 
How  it  is  that  pollen  resting  upon  the  stigma  is 
enabled  to  cooperate  with  the  ovule  in  such  a  wonder- 
ful way  would  require  many  pages  to  explain.  For 
our  present  purpose  it  is  sufficient  to  know  that  a 
single  pollen  grain  so  placed  does  bring  about  in 
some  way  the  development  of  the  ovule  into  seed,  and 
that  the  seed  so  produced  is  capable  of  becoming  a 
plant  which  will  inherit  peculiarities  not  only  from 
the  ovule-bearing  parent,  but  from  the  pollen-bearing 


PROVISION  FOR  OFFSPRING.  43 

one  as  well.  It  may  happen  that  the  pollen  affecting 
the  ovule  was  produced  by  the  same  individual  plant 
that  bears  the  ovule.  In  that  case  we  have  what  is 
known  as  close-pollination.  When  the  pollen  of  one 
individual  is  carried  to  the  stigma  of  another  we  have 
cross-pollination. 

Careful  experiments  have  shown  that,  at  least  in 
the  long  run,  the  offspring  resulting  from  cross-pollin- 
ation are  in  many  ways  better  plants  than  those  pro- 
duced through  close-pollination.  It  is  mainly  for  the 
purpose  of  securing  to  the  offspring  the  important 
benefits  of  cross-pollination,  or,  as  we  said  before,  the 
advantage  of  having  two  parents,  that  corn  plants 
develop  such  elaborate  floral  arrangements.  For  the 
accomplishment  of  this  purpose,  as  we  shall  now  pro- 
ceed to  show,  they  take  advantage  of  the  carrying 
power  of  the  wind,  thus  making  a  servant  of  what 
was  before  an  enemy. 

Indian  corn  affords  a  particularly  fine  example  of 
cross-pollination  through  the  agency  of  the  wind.  The 
stamens  held  high  in  the  air  extend  their  anthers  on 
slender  threads  well  beyond  the  bracts.  When  fairly 
out,  each  pollen-sack,  as  shown  in  Figure  4,  opens  by 
a  little  hole  at  one  side  of  the  lower  end.  The  arrange- 
ment is  such  that  the  closely  packed  dustlike  pollen 
is  held  in  readiness  to  be  shaken  out  in  small  quanti- 
ties by  every  passing  breeze.  At  the  same  time,  the 
particles  are  not  so  likely  to  fall  in  still  air  as  if  the 
opening  were  at  the  very  bottom.  If  the  pollen  did 
fall  directly  down,  it  would  either  be  wasted  or  else 
reach  the  stigmas  of  the  same  plant,  and  so  effect 
close-pollination.  Once  confided  to  a  current  of  air 
the  pollen  will  be  wafted  sideways  for  a  greater  or 
less  distance  according  to  the  strength  of  the  current, 


44  CORN  PLANTS. 

until  finally,  having  meanwhile  sunk  a  few  feet  below 
the  former  level,  some  of  the  pollen  grains  may  be 
blown  against  the  long  silky  stigmas  protruding  above 
the  husks  of  a  young  maize  ear  perhaps  rods  away. 
The  pollen-grains  would  then  become  entangled  among 
the  slender  hairs  which  cover  these  stigmas  (see  III. 
Fig.  8),  and  cross-pollination  would  be  accomplished. 

It  has  been  admitted  that  the  pollen  of  a  maize 
plant  may  sometimes  fall  in  still  air  upon  its  own 
stigmas.  But  there  are  two  reasons  for  believing  that 
this  scarcely  ever  happens.  In  the  first  place,  as  we 
have  seen,  the  anthers  are  so  constructed  that  a  breeze 
is  generally  required  to  shake  out  the  pollen,  and  a 
breeze  will  carry  the  pollen  away.  In  the  second 
place,  we  find  that,  as  a  rule,  the  stigmas  of  the  plant 
are  not  in  readiness  to  receive  pollen  until  after  its 
own  anthers  have  been  emptied.  Close-pollination  is 
thus  as  unlikely  to  occur,  as  it  is  likely  that  cross- 
pollination  will  be  secured. 

Of  course  not  all  the  pollen  from  a  maize  plant  can 
be  expected  to  find  its  way  to  maize  stigmas  in  just 
the  right  condition  to  receive  it.  On  the  contrary 
a  very  large  share  must  inevitably  be  lost.  To  make 
up  for  this  a  correspondingly  large  amount  of  pollen 
is  produced.  According  to  a  careful  estimate  an  aver- 
age maize  plant  has  seventy-two  hundred  stamens, 
containing  about  eighteen  millions  of  pollen-grains. 
Since  about  two  thousand  ovules  are  reckoned  to  a 
plant,  this  would  give  nine  thousand  pollen-grains  to 
an  ovule.  When  it  is  remembered  that  a  single  grain 
falling  upon  a  stigma  is  sufficient  to  insure  the  ripen- 
ing of  the  ovule,  we  see  that  a  very  generous  margin 
for  mishaps  has  been  allowed. 

The  provisions  made  for  pollination  in   wild  oat- 


PROVISION  FOR   OFFSPRING. 


45 


grass  (Fig.  31)  are  very  like  what  are  found  in  most 
grasses,  and  are  of  interest 
for  comparison  with  those 
of  cereals.  The  stigmas 
of  a  given  flower  cluster 
may  or  may  not  be  pro- 
truded while  anthers  of 
the  same  cluster  are  shed- 
ding their  pollen.  In 
either  case,  however,  there 
is  a  good  chance  that  cross- 
pollination  will  be  accom- 
plished throughout  most 
of  the  cluster,  and  that  in 
one  way  or  another  all 
the  stigmas  will  receive 
pollen  even  though  it  will 
be  partly  from  the  same 
plant.  Such  plants  go  on 
the  principle  that  while 
cross-pollination  is  worth 
making  a  good  deal  of 
effort  to  obtain,  it  may 
sometimes  prove  impossi- 
ble (as  in  the  absence  of 
neighboring  plants  of  the 
same  kind),  and  then  close- 
pollination  is  much  better 
than  no  pollination  at  all. 
Among  such  grasses  as 
the  cereals,  where  innu- 
merable individuals  com- 
monly grow  close  together 
in  the  same  field,  we  can- 
not of  course  suppose  that  any  plant  would  be  likely 


FIG.  12.  Oat  plant,  showing  general 
appearance  after  several  tillers  have 
formed.  (Baillon.) 


46  CORN  PLANTS. 

to  suffer  from  the  lack  of  neighbors.  It  is  not  impos- 
sible, however,  that  rain  coming  at  the  wrong  time,  or 
some  other  unfavorable  circumstance,  might  largely 
defeat  "  the  best  laid  schemes  "  for  cross-pollination. 
Indian  corn,  as  we  have  seen,  protrudes  its  ample  stig- 
mas all  at  once  and  far  beyond  the  husks.  So  long 
do  they  remain  thus  exposed  and  in  good  condition 
for  receiving  pollen,  that  even  if  bad  weather  lasted 
some  days,  there  would  be  plenty  of  time  left  for 
thorough  pollination.  Other  cereals,  on  the  contrary, 
open  their  spikelets  only  a  few  at  a  time  and  close 
them  again  after  a  brief  exposure  of  the  stigmas  and 
anthers.  This  is  doubtless  necessary  because  of  the 
greater  delicacy  of  the  parts.  It  makes  the  flowers, 
however,  much  more  dependent  upon  favorable  weather 
to  accomplish  their  cross-pollination.  Indeed,  it  must 
often  prove  to  be  impossible  with  many  of  the  flowers. 
Hence,  if  the  ripening  of  seed  in  these  plants  were 
made  to  depend  entirely  upon  the  chances  of  securing 
a  cross  (as  is  the  case  with  certain  kinds  of  grasses), 
then  the  farmer's  crop  would  be  very  likely  to  suffer. 
Cultivators  of  grain  naturally  prefer  those  sorts  which 
give  the  best  yield.  This  means  that  the  varieties 
which  best  provide  for  the  certain  pollination  of  every 
ovule  are  the  ones  most  generally  selected.  The  result 
is  that  we  find  in  many  of  the  cereals  in  cultivation  as 
good  or  even  better  provision  for  close-pollination  than 
for  securing  a  transfer  of  pollen  from  plant  to  plant. 

In  rye  the  stigmas  and  anthers  mature  at  the  same 
time,  and  as  the  bracts  then  open  widely,  a  good  op- 
portunity is  given  for  either  cross-  or  close-pollination. 
The  amount  of  pollen  is  certainly  sufficient,  for  it  has 
been  estimated  that  a  single  anther  contains  twenty 
thousand  of  these  golden  dustlike  grains.  This  makes 


PROVISION  FOR   OFFSPRING.  47 

something  like  two  hundred  pounds  of  this  powder  to 
an  acre  of  rye. 

The  arrangements  for  pollination  in  wheat,  barley, 
oats,  and  rice  are  much  the  same  as  in  rye,  except 
that  their  bracts  as  a  rule  open  less  widely  and  in 
some  cases  not  at  all.  When  a  flower  remains  closed 
its  pollen  can  reach  no  stigma  but  its  own,  and 
cross-pollination  is  prevented.  Yet  it  is  a  curious 
fact  that  in  such  cases  there  is  still  an  enormous 
amount  of  pollen.  Since  we  know  that  a  single  par- 
ticle of  pollen  to  each  ovule  is  sufficient  to  insure  its 
proper  development,  all  this  unnecessary  production 
of  precious  material  seems  strangely  wasteful.  We 
can  account  for  it  only  on  the  supposition  that  these 
flowers  were  originally  fitted  for  cross-pollination  and 
have  lost  the  power  through  many  ages  of  cultivation. 

The  loss  of  this  important  power  may  have  come 
about  partly  through  the  continued  selection  of  the 
sorts  which  yielded  best,  as  already  suggested.  Per- 
haps it  may  have  resulted  in  part  also  from  the  special 
care  which  these  plants  have  received  for  centuries. 
At  least  it  seems  not  improbable  that  plants  which 
are  made  to  grow  in  soil  carefully  prepared  and  en- 
riched would  have  less  need  of  the  advantages  of 
cross-pollination  than  wild  plants  which  have  to  shift 
for  themselves.  However  this  may  be,  we  must  not 
argue  from  the  facts  given  that  cross-pollination  'is  of 
small  value  to  the  offspring  even  of  cultivated  plants. 
Indeed  we  have  abundant  proof  to  the  contrary  in  the 
fact  that  varieties  most  highly  prized  by  modern  cul- 
tivators—  as,  for  example,  the  famous  "pedigree 
wheats  " —  have  been  obtained  through  repeated  cross- 
pollination  by  artificial  means.  The  truth  would 
seem  to  be  that  farmers  are  in  some  cases  willing  to 


48  CORN  PLANTS. 

forego  certain   advantages  for  the  sake  of   securing 
others  which  they  deem  more  important. 

Ripening  and  Protection  of  the  Fruit. 

After  pollination  has  been  effected  in  one  way  or 
another,  the  stigmas  and  anthers,  having  now  fulfilled 
their  purpose,  fall  off  or  wither.  At  the  same  time 
the  ovary  and  the  ovule  inclosed  within  it  begin  to 
undergo  the  remarkable  changes  which  constitute  the 
ripening  of  the  grain.  Nearly  all  the  food  which  the 
plant  now  manufactures  or  has  previously  stored  in 
its  pithy  parts  is  henceforth  delivered  to  this  region 
of  rapid  growth  to  serve  as  material  for  the  transfor- 
mations in  progress. 

What  goes  to  the  ovary  wall  enables  it  to  enlarge 
so  as  to  keep  pace  with  the  young  seed  within.  The 
main  bulk  of  all  the  food,  however,  is  needed  in  the 
ripening  ovule,  or  seed  that  is  to  be.  As  the  material 
arrives  part  of  it  is  used  up  at  once  in  the  formation 
of  a  little  plant  with  tiny  stem,  leaves,  and  roots. 
These  are  all  packed  into  the  smallest  space,  and  the 
whole  comes  to  occupy  a  position  at  one  side  near  the 
lower  end  of  the  seed.  (Fig.  9.)  The  larger  share  of 
the  material  received  is  stowed  away  in  the  remaining 
portion  of  the  seed,  as  food  for  the  young  plantlet  to 
use  at  the  time  of  sprouting. 

Since  in  the  plant  body  materials  may  be  carried 
from  place  to  place  most  readily  when  dissolved  in  the 
sap,  the  food  substances  which  come  to  the  young 
seed  arrive  in  liquid  form.  Here  we  find  them  accu- 
mulating for  a  while,  as  constituents  of  a  sweet  milk- 
like  fluid.  While  in  this  stage,  the  kernels  are  said 
to  be  "  in  the  milk."  Gradually  the  nutritive  part  of 
this  "  milk  "  separates  from  the  watery  portion,  some- 


PROVISION  FOR   OFFSPRING.  49 

what  as  curd  separates  from  whey.  At  the  same  time 
fresh  nutritive  material  is  arriving  to  be  solidified  in 
the  same  manner.  Finally  the  "  milk  "  is  entirely  re- 
placed by  solid  food-material  which  becomes  in  the 
ripened  grain  as  hard  as  the  hardest  cheese.  Thus  in 
each  seed  there  is  packed  the  largest  amount  of  food 
possible  in  the  available  space. 

During  the  milky  period  in  the  ripening  of  the 
grain,  the  sweet  and  exceedingly  tender  kernels  offer 
a  great  temptation  to  certain  birds.  Rice  planters 
are  especially  troubled  by  hosts  of  bobolinks  which 
arrive  from  the  north  just  in  time  to  do  most  damage 
in  the  fields.  No  longer  the  conspicuously  colored 
songsters  we  know  in  summer,  these  birds  have  now 
become  sparrowlike  in  appearance,  and,  as  a  result 
of  their  gluttony,  almost  too  fat  to  fly.  While  in  this 
condition,  they  are  known  as  "  rice-birds,"  and  appear 
under  that  name  as  a  delicacy  in  the  markets.  Pic- 
tures from  Japan  indicate  that  a  similar  bird  infests 
the  rice-fields  of  that  region.  Wheat  and  other  grains 
are  also  known  to  suffer  somewhat  in  the  same  way 
in  various  localities. 

It  has  been  observed  that  the  bearded  varieties  of 
grain  plants  suffer  less  from  the  attacks  of  birds  than 
do  the  awnless  sorts.  Hence,  it  would  seem  that  awns 
may  be  the  means  naturally  provided  as  a  protection 
against  these  enemies.  An  examination  of  a  well-de- 
veloped awn  of  rice,  rye,  wheat,  or  barley  will  show  it 
to  be  especially  well  constructed  to  serve  as  a  defen- 
sive weapon.  (See  Figs.  22  and  24  Z>.)  Not  only  is 
it  sharp  at  the  tip,  but  along  the  sides  it  is  armed  with 
numerous  upward  pointing  teeth.  The  whole  recalls 
the  long  saw-edged  spears  used  by  certain  savage  war- 
riors. A  little  bird  with  short  bill  in  trying  to  steal 


Fio.  13.  Oat  plant  which  had  been  blown  over  and  then  recovered  the  upright 
position  of  its  upper  part  by  bends  at  the  nodes.  Brace  roots  are  developing 
from  the  lower  nodes,  and  two  tillers  have  started  near  the  base.  The  young  inflo- 
rescence is  just  pushing  its  way  out  from  the  uppermost  leaf  sheath.  (Original.) 


FIG.  14.  I.  Part  of  an  oat  stem  showing  swollen  ring  (R)  at  base  of  sheath  (SB). 
P,  place  of  the  node.    (Enlarged.) 

II.  The  same,  cut  lengthwise. 

III.  The  same,  after  the  upper  internode  has  been  bent  into  an  erect  position 
from  an  oblique  one  by  growth  of  the  sheath-ring  on  its  lower  side  W.    (Original.) 


52  CORN  PLANTS. 

the  kernels  from  a  bearded  spike  of  wheat,  rye,  or 
barley,  could  hardly  avoid  rubbing  tender  parts  of  its 
head  against  the  sawlike  edges  of  many  awns.  The 
entire  absence  of  such  defensive  weapons  from  maize 
may  doubtless  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  its 
thick  husks  generally  afford  ample  protection. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  whatever  food-material 
goes  to  the  building  of  awns  is  just  so  much  taken 
from  the  store  which  otherwise  might  be  laid  by  in 
the  seeds.  This  may  in  part  account  for  the  fact  that 
some  of  the  best-yielding  varieties  of  wheat,  and  the 
like,  are  entirely  without  awns.  (Fig.  26.)  In  re- 
gions where  birds  would  do  little  damage,  or  where 
they  may  be  readily  scared  away,  it  is  natural  that 
farmers  should  encourage  those  varieties  of  grain 
which  make  less  awn  and  more  seed. 

The  ripened  grain  or  kernel  of  any  corn  plant,  as 
we  have  seen,  consists  of  the  enlarged  ovary  com- 
pletely filled  by  a  single  seed.  It  is  thus  not  merely 
a  seed,  but  a  seed  and  its  case.  The  seed  case,  more- 
over, fits  so  tightly  around  the  seed,  that  the  "  seed 
coat,"  or  outer  layer  of  the  seed,  unites  with  the  ovary 
wall  to  form  a  hard,  protecting  layer  or  "  hull."  In 
ihe  process  of  milling  this  indigestible  part  is  sep- 
arated and  forms  the  main  bulk  of  "bran,"  while  the 
seed  food  is  ground  into  meal  or  flour. 

Sometimes  as  in  oats  (Fig.  18)  and  common  bar- 
ley, the  precious  contents  of  the  grain  are  still  further 
protected  by  having  one  of  the  innermost  bracts  of 
the  spikelet  wrapped  so  tightly  about  the  seed  case  as 
to  seem  almost  a  part  of  the  kernel.  In  rice  two  hard 
bracts  inclose  the  ripened  grain  and  fall  off  with  it. 
These  coverings  are  of  special  use  after  the  grain  has 
left  the  parent  plant,  and  must  shift  for  itself. 


PROVISION  FOR   OFFSPRING.  53 

Scattering  and  Planting  of  Seeds. 

With  grasses  that  grow  wild,  the  future  welfare  of 
the  offspring  depends  largely  upon  the  seeds  being 
carried  to  some  new  locality.  For,  plainly,  if  the 
seeds  should  sprout  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
parent,  the  young  plants  would  have  to  live  upon  soil 
from  which  the  substances  most  needed  for  their 
growth  had  already  been  largely  exhausted.  Let 
them  be  carried  to  a  distance,  however,  and  there 
would  be  a  chance  of  their  securing  a  more  favorable 
place  of  growth. 

In  order  to  obtain  this  benefit  for  their  offspring, 
wild  grasses  provide  various  means  for  securing  the 
transportation  of  their  ripened  seeds.  Some  of  them 
develop  tufts  of  hair,  long  streamers,  and  balloonlike 
coverings,  or  other  special  arrangements  for  catching 
the  wind.  Aquatic  grasses  provide  a  boatlike  affair 
in  which  the  seed  may  float  away.  Certain  land  forms 
have  hooked  or  barbed  projections  on  bracts  sur- 
rounding the  seed,  which  make  thus  a  sort  of  burr. 
This,  catching  into  the  fur  or  fleece  of  a  passing  ani- 
mal, may  be  carried  a  long  way  before  it  is  rubbed 
off.  Still  other  methods  might  be  mentioned  by 
which  different  wild  grasses  send  their  seeds  on  a 
journey,  but  enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  this 
important  provision  for  their  welfare  has  by  no  means 
been  neglected. 

When  we  turn  to  our  cultivated  cereals  and  ask 
what  arrangements  they  have  for  dispersing  their 
seeds,  we  find  that  in  this  matter  they  present  a 
marked  contrast  to  the  other  grasses.  Instead  of 
taking  advantage  of  the  carrying  power  of  wind, 
water,  or  passing  animals,  they  generally  seem  to  be 


54  CORN  PLANTS. 

doing  their  best  to  prevent  such  natural  agencies 
from  removing  the  seeds  at  all.  The  kernels  of 
maize,  for  example,  are  attached  so  firmly  to  the  cob 
and  inclosed  so  tightly  by  the  husks  that  considerable 
manual  labor  is  required  to  separate  them  from  the 
plant.  With  the  other  grains,  as 
we  know,  severe  threshing  is  neces- 
sary to  dislodge  the  kernels  from 
their  coverings.  Sometimes  this 
habit  of  holding  their  ripened  seeds 
leads  to  a  curious  result.  If,  because 
of  continued  wet  weather,  a  farmer 
is  unable  to  harvest  his  wheat  or  bar- 
ley, he  may  find  the  kernels  sprout- 
ing in  the  heads,  and  pushing  forth 
clusters  of  little  green  leaves  from 
every  spikelet.  A  wild  grass  could 
scarcely  be  found  in  such  a  predica- 

Fio.  15.    Oat.    Part  of  , 

leaf    and    stem    showing    menb- 

the  rain  guard  (R)  where       The  reason  f  or  this   remarkable 

the   blade    (B)    and   the  ,     ,      ,  .,  ,  , 

sheath  (S)  join.  (Origi-  contrast  between  wild  grasses  and 
nal-)  those  cultivated  for  their  grains  is 

probably  not  far  to  seek.  We  know  that  a  farmer 
can  derive  most  profit  from  the  sorts  which  hold  their 
seeds  until  he  is  ready  to  harvest  them.  Naturally, 
also,  he  prefers  to  manage  the  sowing  himself.  From 
the  earliest  times,  therefore,  intelligent  growers  of 
grain  would  have  been  likely  to  plant  only  those  sorts 
which  hold  their  seeds  long  enough  for  the  farmer  to 
gather  them,  and  only  these  would  stand  any  chance 
of  benefiting  from  human  care.  Consequently  the 
cultivation  of  grains  must  have  continually  discour- 
aged whatever  methods  of  dispersal  these  plants  may 
have  had  in  the  wild  state.  It  is  true  that  as  soon  as 


PROVISION  FOR   OFFSPRING.  55 

any  kind  of  grain  lost  the  power  of  scattering  its 
seeds,  it  became  entirely  dependent  upon  man's  care 
for  the  continuance  of  the  race.  Yet  through  such 
dependence  it  must  receive  great  benefit.  Hence- 
forth, upon  its  welfare  would  depend  in  large  measure 
the  welfare  of  man,  and  consequently  it  would  have  be- 
stowed upon  it  man's  intelligent  care  through  which 
the  highest  possibilities  of  its  kind  would  be  developed. 

Certain  sorts  of  corn  plants  have  come  to  depend 
more  than  others  upon  human  agency  for  the  sowing 
of  their  seeds,  just  as  in  the  matter  of  pollination  the 
influence  of  culture  has  been  more  marked  in  some 
cases  than  in  others.  Thus  our  maize  plants  if  left 
to  themselves  in  the  field  would  not  produce  another 
crop.  The  same  is  true  of  most  sorts  of  wheat  and 
barley.  These  plants  are  known  only  in  the  culti- 
vated state,  and  botanists  believe  that  the  original  wild 
forms  may  have  died  out  entirely.  Rice,  rye,  and 
oats,  on  the  contrary,  often  sow  their  seeds  about  the 
fields  in  which  they  are  cultivated,  and  in  favorable 
localities  they  thus  establish  themselves  as  wild  plants. 
Our  cultivated  varieties  of  oat  are  believed  to  be 
merely  improved  forms  of  "  wild  oat,"  which  grows  as 
a  weed  in  the  same  fields.  This  close  association  of 
the  wild  with  the  cultivated  form  is  accounted  for  on 
the  supposition  that  of  all  the  cereals  the  oat  has  most 
fully  retained  its  original  power  of  seed  dispersal,  and 
hence  is  most  apt  to  relapse  into  the  wild  condition 
whenever  opportunity  offers.  Such  wild-growing  forms 
of  corn  plants  are  of  interest  as  showing  us  how  the 
ancestors  of  our  cultivated  grains  used  to  provide  for 
the  planting  of  their  seeds  before  farmers  came  to 
help  them. 

The  fruit  of  the  wild  oat  mentioned  above  differs 


56  CORN  PLANTS. 

from  that  of  the  cultivated  sort  in  three  particulars, 
whereby  it  takes  advantage  of  the  carrying  power  of 
wind.  Thus,  as  will  be  seen  by  comparing  Figs.  18 
and  19,  the  wild  oat  has  a  smaller  and  consequently 
lighter  grain,  which  can  therefore  be  more  easily 
blown  away.  Moreover  the  surface  exposed  is  made 
larger  by  the  longer  and  rougher  awns  and  the  numer- 
ous long,  bristly  hairs  developed  on  the  inner  bracts. 
These  peculiarities  of  the  wild  plant  are  plainly  the 
ones  which  serve  for  the  dispersion  of  its  seeds,  and 
are  furthermore  just  the  ones  that  cultivation  would 
discourage. 

Another  peculiarity  of  the  wild  oat  is  the  marked 
twisting  of  the  awn  below  the  sudden  bend.  When 
moistened,  the  twisted  part  uncoils ;  upon  drying,  it 
coils  again ;  and  this  uncoiling  and  coiling  may  be 
repeated  many  times.  At  each  coiling,  the  free  part 
of  the  awn  is  made  to  sweep  around  like  the  hand  of 
a  watch,  or,  if  the  tip  of  the  awn  is  held  fast,  then  the 
main  part  of  the  fruit  is  forced  to  revolve  several  times 
on  its  axis.  When  one  of  the  separated  fruits  carried 
away  by  the  wind  falls  at  last  to  the  ground  among 
grass  or  stubble,  the  peculiar  movements  of  the  awn 
help  to  bury  the  seed  in  the  soil.  At  the  first  increase 
of  moisture  the  awn  revolves  till  its  tip  is  stopped  by 
some  stalk  or  clod  ;  then  the  twisting  motion  is  trans- 
mitted to  the  lower  part  of  the  fruit,  which,  being 
sharp  and  beset  with  upward-pointing  bristles,  slips 
forward  with  ease  but  not  backward  even  when  the 
motion  of  the  awn  is  reversed.  The  result  is  that 
with  every  twist  the  seed  part  is  forced  further  and 
further  into  the  earth.  Country  boys  have  noticed 
that  a  ripe  spikelet  of  the  wild  oat,  from  the  peculiar 
features  described,  bears  a  curious  resemblance  to  an 


PROVISION  FOR  OFFSPRING.  57 

insect,  not  only  in  general  form  but  also  as  imitating 
the  struggles  of  an  insect  when  thrown  into  the  water. 
This  resemblance  they  take  advantage  of  by  using  the 
fruit  instead  of  a  fly  in  fishing  for  trout. 

Rice,  as  we  know,  is  a  plant  that  grows  in  the 
water.  We  should  expect,  therefore,  that  like  many 
other  aquatic  grasses,  it  would  make  use  of  the  floating 
power  of  water  to  carry  its  seeds  to  new  and  favorable 
localities.  If,  however,  we  place  some  ripe  spikelets 
of  cultivated  rice  in  water,  we  find  that  all  of  them 
sink  immediately,  except  a  few  which  have  only  im- 
perfect grains  within  the  husks.  These  exceptions 
show  that  if  the  grains  of  the  other  spikelets  were  not 
so  large  and  heavy  the  spikelets  would  not  sink.  In 
wild  rice  the  grains  are  considerably  smaller  and 
lighter,  and  the  husks  hold  so  much  air  that  the  ripe 
spikelets  are  doubtless  able  to  float.  The  increased 
size  and  weight  of  the  cultivated  rice  grains  are 
plainly  results  of  cultivation. 

Rye,  wheat,  and  barley,  which  resemble  one  another 
so  closely  in  the  general  form  of  their  spikes,  give 
evidence  of  having  closely  similar  methods  of  seed 
dispersal  in  the  original  wild  state.  In  the  wild  form 
of  rye,  the  rachis  of  the  spike  becomes  very  brittle  at 
the  nodes  as  soon  as  the  fruit  is  ripe.  The  same  is 
true  to  a  slight  extent  of  certain  sorts  of  wheat  and 
barley.  As  a  result  of  this  brittleness,  when  the 
spikes  are  threshed  around  by  the  autumn  winds,  the 
rachis  breaks  into  a  number  of  short  sections  each 
with  a  single  spikelet  attached  in  rye  or  wheat,  or 
with  a  spikelet  cluster  in  barley.  A  wind  which  is 
strong  enough  to  break  the  spike  into  sections  will 
have  carrying  power  enough  to  transport  the  section, 
with  its  seed  or  seeds,  no  little  distance  from  the 


58 


CORN  PLANTS. 


parent  plant.  With  cultivation,  the  rachis  would 
gradually  lose  its  brittleness,  and  now  we  find  this 
peculiarity  almost  entirely  absent  from  the  varieties 
which  farmers  prefer. 

So  long  as  botanists  knew  of  no  wild  plant  closely 


FIG.  16.  Oat.  A,  upper  part  of  inflorescence.  B,  a  single  spikelet  in  flower, 
with  the  bracts  spread  somewhat  apart.  C,  one  of  the  outer  bracts.  Z>,  an  inner 
bract  bearing  an  awn.  J,  pistil.  G,  lodicules.  C,  D,  and  J,  enlarged.  (Nees.) 

resembling  maize,  it  was  scarcely  possible  for  them  to 
arrive  at  any  satisfactory  idea  of  the  original  pecul- 
iarities of  the  fruit,  however  sure  they  might  be  that 
much  change  had  been  effected  by  cultivation.  For- 
tunately there  was  discovered  a  few  years  ago,  in  the 


PROVISION  FOR  OFFSPRING. 


59 


mountains  of  Mexico,  a  wild  plant  closely  resembling 

our  maize.     The  Indians  call  it  "coyote   corn,"  be- 

cause the  coyotes  or  prairie  wolves  are  especially  fond 

of  it.     It  is  so  much  like  cultivated  maize  that  botan- 

ists believe  it  to  be  the  same 

or  very  nearly  the  same  as 

the   wild   ancestor   of    our 

familiar   corn.      The   most 

marked  difference  between 

the   coyote   corn    and    the 

cultivated  maize  is  in  the 

fruit.     As  shown  in  Figure 

11,  the  ear  of  this  wild  corn 

is   inclosed   in   husks    like 

those  of   cultivated   maize, 

and   has  its  small   pointed 

kernels  borne   on  a  thick- 

ened  rachis   or  cob.     But 

this  cob  is  divided  into  a 

series  of  segments  by  deep 

cuts  extending  inwards  and 

upwards   from    just   below 

the  bases   of    the   kernels. 

When  the  fruit  is  ripe  the 

ear    breaks    easily    into    SeC-      "tylejOv,  ovary,  containing  an  ovule 

J  (OL);  Y  A,  a  young  anther;  Y  A',  a 

tlOnS  in  much  the  Same  Way      similar  one  cut  lengthwise  to  show 

as  the  spike  of  rye  or  wheat. 
These  sections,  however,  are 
inclosed  by  the  husks,  and  so  would  seem  to  be  pre- 
vented from  being  blown  away  like  the  spike  sections 
of  the  plants  mentioned.  How  shall  we  account  for 
this  hindrance  to  scattering  the  seeds  ?  Most  proba- 
bly the  explanation  is  this  :  The  husks  form  a  sort  of 
pod,  vase-like  in  form  and  open  above,  which  holds 


Fro.  17.  A  spikelet  (similar  to  £, 
Fio.  16)  cut  lengthwise  to  show  the  in- 
ner parts.  Somewhat  diagrammatic. 
SK,  stalklet;  R,  R/,  its  continua- 
tion as  a  little  rachis  within  the 
spikelet;  C,  C',  outer  bracts;  M  F, 
mature  flower  ;  Y  F,  young  flower 
not  yet  opened  ;  R  F,  rudimentary 
flower  or  pair  of  bracts  with  no  floral 
organs  within;  D,  bract  with  awn 
(B);  E,  inner  bract;  G,  lodicule; 
F,  F/,  filaments  bearing  anthers 
(R  A,  R  A'),  from  one  of  which  pol- 
len is  falling  (P);  So,  stigma;  SY, 


forming  within'  (Origi- 


60  CORN  PLANTS. 

and  conceals  the  loosened  sections  of  the  ear.  A  wind 
just  strong  enough  to  break  apart  the  sections  of  a 
rye  spike  and  carry  them  away  would  only  rattle  the 
maize  sections  around  in  their  pouch.  Such  a  wind, 
however,  could  be  of  scarcely  any  service  to  the  maize 
in  carrying  to  a  distance  its  much  heavier  kernels. 
Hence  the  husks  keep  the  kernels  from  being  scat- 
tered by  any  wind  but  one  of  considerable  power.  A 
very  strong  wind  must  shake  the  whole  plant  vigor- 
ously back  and  forth,  and  thus  will  hurl  the  fruit 
sections  well  out  of  the  husks  through  the  opening 
above  and  often  high  up  in  the  air.  The  mere  force 
of  this  throw  must  carry  the  kernels  a  considerable 
distance,  while  the  strong  wind  will  help  them  still 
further  on  their  journey. 

The  fondness  of  the  coyotes  for  the  fruit  of  this 
plant  suggests  that  the  kernels  are  doubtless  scattered 
also  to  some  extent  by  these  animals  when  they  tear 
off  the  husks.  In  this  case,  of  course,  the  kernels 
drop  rather  near  the  parent  plant.  There  are  certain 
birds,  however,  which  may  sometimes  unwittingly  do 
the  plant  a  good  turn  by  carrying  the  kernels  un- 
harmed for  a  considerable  distance  and  leaving  them 
in  a  place  favorable  for  growth.  These  birds  are 
thieves  who  have  discovered  the  secret  of  the  corn's 
rich  treasure,  and  not  content  with  eating  all  they 
can  hold  carry  away  many  kernels,  much  as  squirrels 
do  with  nuts  to  hide  them  for  future  use.  As  with 
the  squirrel  so  with  the  bird,  the  thief  may  be  killed 
before  he  has  a  chance  to  enjoy  his  plunder.  Then 
such  of  the  seeds  as  he  had  placed  in  favorable  situa- 
tions would  have  a  chance  to  grow  into  new  plants. 
Wolf  and  bird  may  be  regarded  as  playing  very  im- 
perfectly and  quite  unintentionally  the  part  of  farmer. 


PROVISION  FOR  OFFSPRING.  61 

It  has  been  observed  that  half-starved  Indians 
sometimes  rob  the  stores  of  nuts  and  corn  which 
birds  or  other  creatures  have  collected.  This  has 
led  to  the  suggestion  that  the  aborigines  may  have 
learned  the  use  of  maize  from  the  example  of  these 
wild  animals. 

Much  the  same  sort  of  service  that  birds  and  beasts 
render  to  maize  is  performed  for  wheat  and  barley  by 
grain-loving  ants  which  live  in  certain  warm  parts  of 
the  Old  World.  It  is  to  the  remarkable  habit  which 
these  insects  have  of  storing  grain  that  reference  is 
made  in  the  famous  passage  from  Proverbs  (vi.  6-8) : 

"  Go  to  the  ant,  thou  sluggard ; 
Consider  her  ways,  and  be  wise  : 
Which  having  no  chief, 
Overseer,  or  ruler, 
Provideth  her  meat  in  the  summer 
And  gathereth  her  food  in  the  harvest." 

Throughout  Palestine  so  much  importance  has  been 
attached  to  the  finding  of  these  hoards  of  grain  that 
rules  as  to  ownership  have  been  laid  down  in  the 
great  Hebrew  law-book  known  as  the  Mishnah.  Sir 
John  Lubbock  further  tells  us  that  "  various  com- 
mentators, including  the  celebrated  Maimonides,  have 
discussed  at  length  the  question  whether  such  grain 
belonged  to  the  owner  of  the  land  or  might  be  taken 
by  gleaners,  giving  the  latter  the  benefit  of  the  doubt. 
They  do  not  appear  to  consider  the  rights  of  the  ants." 

Harvesting  ants  are  common  in  other  warm  parts 
of  the  Old  World  and  in  the  warmer  regions  of 
America.  They  do  not  confine  their  attention  to  cul- 
tivated cereals,  but  collect  largely  from  wild  grasses. 
In  Texas  what  are  known  as  "  agricultural  ants " 
make  special  provision  for  the  growth  of  a  wild  grass 


62  CORN  PLANTS. 

called  "  ant  rice,"  and  regularly  harvest  and  store  the 
grains  for  winter  use.  These  facts  indicate  that  before 
wheat  and  barley  came  to  be  cultivated  they  may  have 
been  helped  not  a  little  in  the  favorable  planting  of 
their  seeds  by  the  industrious  efforts  of  harvesting 
ants. 

The  Infant  Plant  and  its  Food. 

We  have  seen  how  every  part  of  a  full  grown  corn 
plant  contributes  in  some  way  to  the  production  of 
offspring  well  fitted  like  the  parent  to  lead  a  prosper- 
ous life  in  the  field.  We  have  learned,  moreover, 
that  wild  corn  plants  in  order  to  prosper  need  to 
adopt  precautions  and  build  structures  which  become 
largely  unnecessary  as  soon  as  the  plant  comes  to  pro- 
fit by  human  care.  At  the  same  time  such  care,  we 
know,  favors  in  other  important  ways  the  production 
of  as  fine  and  as  many  offspring  as  possible.  Cen- 
turies of  husbandry  have  enormously  increased  the 
quantity  of  seed  food  provided  for  each  little  plant, 
and  also  the  total  yield  from  a  single  seed. 

Surely  the  vegetable  kingdom  has  no  greater  mar- 
vel to  show  than  a  kernel  of  corn.  It  represents  the 
joint  achievement  of  man  and  nature  working  together 
for  untold  generations  upon  this  kind  of  plant  to  pro- 
mote the  most  perfect  provision  for  its  offspring. 

In  order  to  better  appreciate  how  fully  the  needs 
of  the  infant  corn  plant  are  provided  for  by  the 
parent,  we  must  examine  somewhat  more  thoroughly 
than  before  the  contents  of  the  seed.  We  have  seen 
that  the  germ  is  formed  near  the  base  of  the  seed  at 
one  side,  while  in  the  remaining  space  food  materials 
are  accumulating.  This  food,  arriving  in  fluid  form, 
becomes  finally  changed  into  a  hard,  solid  mass  as  the 


PROVISION  FOR   OFFSPRING.  63 

nutritive  substances  take  more  and  more  the  place  of 
the  conveying  water.  There  is,  moreover,  a  loss  of 
the  sweetness  at  first  observed,  —  a  loss  which  be- 
comes perceptible  when  we  compare  the  taste  of  a 
kernel  "  in  the  milk  "  with  one  fully  ripe. 

The  obvious  conclusion  from  such  an  experiment 
is  that  what  arrives  as  dissolved  sugar  is  somehow 
changed  within  the  seed  into  another  substance. 
Chemists  using  more  accurate  tests  find  that  in  the 
forming  seed,  as  the  sugar  disappears,  its  place  is 
taken  by  starch.  This,  as  is  well  known,  differs 
from  sugar  in  having  no  sweet  taste,  and  in  not 
being  soluble  in  water.  A  similar  change  of  sub- 
stance is  found  to  occur  in  other  important  constitu- 
ents of  the  seed  food,  making  them  as  insoluble  as 
starch. 

An  example  of  the  most  valuable  of  these  food  sub- 
stances is  afforded  by  what  farmer  boys  call  "  wheat 
gum."  It  is  a  favorite  practice  of  theirs  after  harvest 
to  obtain  this  substance  by  chewing  a  small  handful 
of  the  ripe  wheat  kernels.  In  so  doing  they  perform 
a  sort  of  rough  chemical  analysis  of  the  seed  food, 
which  is  not  a  little  instructive.  The  "  gum,"  which 
is  their  reward  for  patient  chewing  of  the  kernels, 
is  well  named,  since  it  lacks  none  of  the  qualities 
essential  to  a  perfect  "  chewing  gum."  That  is  to  say, 
not  only  does  it  retain  for  some  time  a  pleasant  sweet 
taste,  but  it  is  soft  and  yielding,  holds  well  together, 
and  no  amount  of  chewing  will  make  it  dissolve. 
When  taken  from  the  mouth  it  is  found  to  be 
remarkably  elastic,  stretching  and  springing  back 
like  rubber.  It  also  shows  itself  as  adhesive  as  glue. 
In  consequence  of  its  glue-like  properties  it  is  named 
"  gluten."  As  we  shall  see  later,  it  is  because  wheat 


64  CORN  PLANTS. 

contains  a  considerable  amount  of  this  tenacious  glu- 
ten that  we  are  able  to  make  raised  bread  from  wheat 
flour.  Gluten,  moreover,  is  of  the  highest  nutritive 
value.  In  this  regard  it  is  equal  to  the  curd  of  milk, 
white  of  egg,  or  lean  meat.  Like  them  it  belongs  to 
the  class  of  substances  known  as  proteids,  which  form 
the  chief  part  of  our  flesh  and  blood.  In  the  seed 
food  of  the  other  corn  plants  proteids  also  occur ;  but 
these  for  the  most  part  lack  the  tenacity  and  elasticity 
that  make  wheat  gluten  so  valuable  in  bread. 

Besides  the  starch  and  proteids  contained  in  corn 
seeds,  there  is  present  a  small  amount  of  fatty  oil; 
these  are  the  principal  food  materials  upon  which  the 
infant  plant  must  depend  for  its  nutriment.  Yet  we 
know  that  these  can  form  no  part  of  a  watery  sap 
such  as  a  plant  needs  to  nourish  it.  How,  then,  can 
the  infant  wheat  plant  profit  in  any  way  from  these 
insoluble  substances  packed  in  the  seed? 

Before  attempting  to  answer  these  questions  let  us 
inquire  how  a  similar  difficulty  is  overcome  in  our 
own  bodies.  We  know  that  food  cannot  nourish  us 
unless  it  gets  into  the  blood ;  and  only  watery  fluids 
can  pass  through  the  walls  of  the  stomach.  When- 
ever we  take  into  the  stomach  food  containing  gluten, 
it  comes  at  once  under  the  influence  of  a  peculiar  sub- 
stance called  pepsin.  This  causes  insoluble  proteids 
to  undergo  a  curious  transformation.  However  solid 
or  tenacious  they  may  be,  mere  contact  with  the  pep- 
sin dissolved  in  the  juice  of  the  stomach  gradually 
changes  them  into  readily  soluble  substances  known 
as  peptones.  Passing  now  easily  into  the  blood  the 
peptones  may  be  carried  to  any  part  of  the  body,  there 
to  be  built  into  solid  flesh.  Substances  like  pepsin, 
which  are  believed  to  have  the  power  to  transform 


PROVISION  FOR   OFFSPRING. 


65 


other    substances   without     being  themselves    trans- 
formed, are  called  ferments. 

In  the  mouth  is  formed  another  ferment,  called 
ptyalin,  which  has  the  power  of  changing  starch  into 
sugar.  In  the  farmer  boy's  separation  of  wheat 
"gum,"  ptyalin  plays  a  most  important  part.  "We 
may  thus  explain  why  the  kernels  become  sweet  with 


FIG.  18.  Aspikelet  of  cultivated 
oat  in  fruit.  F,  the  awned  inner  bract 
swollen  with  the  ripe  grain  within ; 
A,  awn  ;  F',  another  ripe  "  oat  "  sep- 
arated from  the  little  rachis  (E)  and 
turned  to  show  its  inner  face  where 
the  edges  of  the  bract  inclosing  the 
grain  are  seen  not  quite  meeting 
at  the  centre.  About  natural  size. 
(Original.) 


Fio.  19.  A  spikelet  of  wild  oat  in 
fruit.  .F,  F',  two  fruits  separated 
from  the  other  (F") ;  B,  B/,  B", 
bristles ;  A,  A',  A",  awns.  About 
natural  size.  (Original.) 


chewing,  and  why  the  sweetness  finally  disappears : 
As  the  starch,  which  forms  the  main  bulk  of  the  wheat 
grain,  becomes  gradually  changed  by  the  ptyalin  into 
sugar,  it  dissolves  in  the  saliva,  is  then  swallowed, 
and  finally  passes  into  the  blood  through  the  wall  of 
the  stomach.  The  sweet  taste  continues  until  all  the 
starch  mixed  with  the  gluten  has  been  changed  into 
sugar  and  carried  away. 


66  CORN  PLANTS. 

Ferments  having  much  the  same  power  of  changing 
proteids  into  peptones  and  starch  into  sugar  are  found 
in  the  ripened  grains  along  with  the  seed  food.  These 
ferments  are  ready  to  act  as  soon  as  the  grain  is  in 
condition  to  sprout.  Let  us  now  see  how  this  process 
of  sprouting  or  germination  takes  place. 

A  ripe  kernel  of  any  grain,  as  we  know,  is  dry  and 
hard,  and  the  germ  within  is  apparently  lifeless  when 
it  leaves  the  parent  plant.  Nor  can  it  be  made  to 
show  any  signs  of  life  except  it  have  sufficient  moist- 
ure, air,  and  warmth.  The  temperature  need  not  be 
much  above  the  freezing  point  of  water,  or  far  below 
what  to  us  feels  hot.  There  should  be  enough  moist- 
ure to  enable  the  seed  to  become  well  saturated  and 
softened,  but  not  so  much  water  as  to  prevent  free 
access  of  air.  When  placed  under  these  favorable 
conditions  the  first  change  to  be  noticed  is  a  forcible 
absorption  of  moisture  indicated  by  a  prompt  swelling 
of  the  whole  kernel.  So  forcibly  is  the  water  taken 
in  that  the  swelling  is  able  to  overcome  a  pressure  of 
more  than  two  hundred  pounds  to  the  square  inch. 
Soon  after  the  seed  has  absorbed  all  the  water  it  can 
hold,  the  infant  plant  begins  to  show  signs  of  life. 
It  is  as  if  the  disturbance  of  its  cradle  had  at  last 
awakened  it  from  a  long  sleep,  and  fancy  suggests 
that  the  little  thing  must  be  hungry.  If  so,  the  food 
is  at  hand,  and  now  all  is  in  readiness  for  changing 
the  solid  materials  into  liquid  nutriment  as  fast  as 
the  plantlet's  needs  require.  This  is  accomplished 
by  means  of  several  ferments  very  much  like  the  two 
already  described.  Their  liquefying  action  begins  on 
that  part  of  the  seed  food  lying  nearest  to  the  germ. 

If  we  look  now  at  the  germ  of  maize  as  shown  in 
Figure  9,  we  find  that  the  part  lying  in  contact  with 


PROVISION  FOR   OFFSPRING.  67 

the  seed  food  is  in  form  so  different  from  all  the  other 
parts  as  to  suggest  its  having  a  special  use.  This 
curious  shield-shaped  part  is  called  the  scutellum 
(sc).  On  the  side  in  contact  with  the  seed  food  the 
scutellum  is  expanded  so  as  to  present  as  much  sur- 
face as  possible,  while  its  connection  with  the  rest  of 
the  germ  is  at  the  junction  of  the  young  shoot  (s£) 
and  the  young  root  (w  below).  As  the  plantlet  en- 
larges in  germination  we  find  the  seed  food  gradually 
exhausted,  until  finally  only  the  empty  "  hull  "  is  left. 
Plainly,  therefore,  the  purpose  of  the  scutellum  is  to 
absorb  the  liquefied  food  coming  in  contact  with  its 
broad  surface,  and  then  to  conduct  it  toward  that  part 
of  the  germ  whence  the  nutriment  may  be  most  readily 
distributed  to  the  growing  organs  above  and  below. 
In  all  the  other  grains  the  scutellum  is  much  the 
same  as  in  maize,  only  smaller. 

The  first  part  of  the  germ  to  break  through  the 
protective  covering  is  the  main  root  (?/?,  Fig.  10  I.). 
This  is  soon  followed  by  an  upward  pointing  cylinder 
(II.  5)  made  up  of  tiny  leaves  in  tubular  form,  one 
within  another.  At  about  the  same  time  appear  from 
the  side  of  the  little  stem  the  secondary  roots  (III. 
w,r  w")  w/").  Such  roots  rapidly  increase  in  number 
and  importance. 

Soon  after  a  root  emerges  it  is  found  to  be  nearly 
covered  with  delicate  hairs,  which  adhere  firmly  to 
any  particles  of  soil  with  which  they  may  come  in 
contact.  Such  root-hairs  henceforth  perform  the 
work  of  absorbing  water  into  the  plant.  The  tip  of 
the  leafy  shoot,  at  first  pale,  begins  to  turn  green  as 
soon  as  it  reaches  the  sunlight.  This  is  a  sign  that  the 
young  plant  is  making  food  on  its  own  account ;  but 
it  is  not  yet  required  to  depend  entirely  upon  itself. 


68  CORN  PLANTS. 

There  is  considerable  seed  food  remaining  when  this 
stage  is  reached.  This  generous  supply  enables  the 
plantlet  to  extend  its  roots  and  leaves  much  farther 
in  a  short  time  than  would  otherwise  be  possible. 
When  at  last  the  reserve  supply  is  exhausted  the  in- 
fant plant  is  well  able  to  take  care  of  itself.  It  can 
thus  enter  vigorously  upon  a  sunny  life  in  the  fields, 
—  a  life  leading  finally  to  the  production  of  well-de- 
veloped offspring. 

V.  THE  ADVANTAGES  OF  CEREALS  AS  FOOD- 
PLANTS. 

From  what  we  have  learned  of  the  life  of  cereal 
grains  it  will  now  be  easier  for  us  to  understand  why 
they  are  the  most  useful  of  food-plants.  A  few  well 
known  facts  will  help  us  to  appreciate  more  fully 
their  importance  to  civilization.  The  food  of  savages 
is  obtained  principally  by  hunting  and  fishing,  and  by 
gathering  roots,  fruits,  and  seeds  of  wild  plants.  The 
supply  of  food  which  may  be  thus  found  is  so  limited 
in  any  region  that  only  small  and  wandering  tribes 
can  live  in  this  way.  Large  and  strong  nations  are 
possible  only  where  food  is  made  abundant  by  domes- 
tication of  plants  and  animals.  Moreover,  since  the 
domestic  animals  most  useful  to  man  live  almost  ex- 
clusively on  vegetable  food,  we  see  that  it  is  the  plants 
which  primarily  count.  Wild  plants,  it  is  true,  may 
largely  serve  as  forage  for  cattle,  sheep,  and  the  like  ; 
but  forage  can  seldom  be  had  throughout  the  year, 
and  the  best  results  in  raising  animals  are  never  at- 
tained except  where  fodder  is  grown  for  them.  Hence 
increased  dependence  upon  animal  food  means  gener- 
ally not  less  but  greater  dependence  upon  cultivated 
food-plants. 


ADVANTAGES  AS  FOOD-PLANTS.  69 

Of  these,  as  we  know,  corn  plants  have  always 
been  preferred  by  the  greatest  peoples  throughout  the 
world.  The  main  reasons  for  this  preference  are  not 
far  to  seek ;  they  relate  chiefly  to  the  yield,  separa- 
tion, bulk  and  keeping  of  the  grain.  That  is  to  say, 
the  superiority  of  cereals  depends  upon  their  having 
important  advantages  over  all  other  food-plants,  — 
not  that  in  any  one  particular  corn  plants  may  not 
be  equaled  by  others,  but  that  every  other  food-plant 
lacks  one  or  more  of  the  great  advantages  which  corn 
plants  combine.  These  fortunate  peculiarities  we 
may  now  consider. 

Yield. 

The  foremost  advantage  of  corn  plants  is  the 
prompt  and  generous  return  they  make  to  man  for 
the  care  he  bestows  upon  them.  Even  when  growing 
wild  or  with  little  care,  plants  of  this  sort  yield,  as 
we  have  seen,  a  considerable  amount  of  food,  while 
intelligent  cultivation  increases  the  yield  enormously. 
This  is  well  illustrated  by  the  following  case,  which 
the  ancient  writer  Pliny  tells  of  as  coming  up  before 
the  magistrates  in  Rome. 

A  farmer  named  Cresinus  had  astonished  his  neigh- 
bors by  reaping  much  larger  crops  of  grain  from  a 
very  small  farm  than  they  had  been  able  to  raise  in 
extensive  fields.  Moved  by  envy,  they  brought  him 
to  trial  on  a  charge  of  sorcery.  "  In  answer  to  this 
charge  Cresinus  produced  his  efficient  implements  of 
husbandry,  his  well-fed  oxen,  and  a  hale  young  woman, 
his  daughter,  and  pointing  to  them  exclaimed,  — 
'  These,  Romans,  are  my  instruments  of  witchcraft, 
but  I  cannot  here  show  you  my  labors,  sweats,  and 
anxious  cares.'  "  Could  the  enterprising  Cresinus 


70  CORN  PLANTS. 

have  looked  into  the  future  and  seen  the  stupendous 
grain  crops  produced  on  our  best  farms  to-day,  he 
would  doubtless  have  found  the  advance  quite  as  mys- 
terious as  his  neighbors  found  his  improvement  on 
what  they  had  done.  Nor  have  we  any  reason  to  sup- 
pose that  our  farmers  have  reached  the  limit  of  pro- 
gress in  this  direction.  On  the  contrary,  it  seems  to 
expert  students  of  the  question  that  the  farmers  of 
the  future  are  sure  to  attain  an  increase  in  the  yield 
of  corn  plants  many  times  greater  than  the  best  re- 
sults thus  far  achieved. 

The  extraordinary  yield  of  cereals  is  plainly  a  re- 
sult of  their  remarkable  fitness  for  life  in  the  field. 
This  fitness,  as  we  have  seen,  is  shown  especially  well 
in  their  ability  to  take  fullest  advantage  of  every  op- 
portunity offered  to  increase  their  facilities  for  food- 
making.  The  open  field  affords  just  the  conditions 
most  needed  for  this  work ;  that  is  to  say,  abundant 
sunshine,  sufficient  moisture,  and  least  interference 
from  overshadowing  plants.  The  slender,  upright 
form  of  their  green  parts  permits  grain  plants  to  grow 
well  even  when  crowded  rather  close  together.  Not 
only  can  many  stalks  then  grow  up  to  good  advantage 
from  a  small  area  of  soil,  but  the  spreading  of  weeds 
among  them  is  thereby  discouraged.  All  this  favors 
rapidity  of  growth  and  helps  to  make  the  cultivation 
of  corn  plants  easy.  Rapid  development  is  especially 
important  in  northern  regions  where  the  growing  sea- 
son is  very  short.  In  Lapland  barley  is  harvested 
about  six  weeks  after  planting,  while  in  such  warm 
countries  as  Spain  the  farmers  reap  two  crops  of  bar- 
ley within  the  year. 


Fig.  20.     Rice.     P,  upper  part  of  a  rice  plant,  reduced  in  size. 
S,  spikelet.     L,  ligule.    L  and  S,  natural  size.     (Martins.) 


72  CORN  PLANTS. 

Separation. 

Besides  being  at  once  exceptionally  productive  and 
easy  to  cultivate  throughout  a  wide  range  of  climates, 
corn  plants  store  their  nutriment  in  a  form  especially 
easy  for  man  to  obtain.  Most  other  food-plants  are 
found  to  give  more  trouble  than  do  the  cereal  grains 
in  one  or  more  of  the  processes  by  which  the  nutri- 
tious parts  are  separated  for  man's  use.  Thus,  their 
manner  of  growth  makes  the  reaping  of  the  grain 
much  less  laborious  than  the  harvesting  of  "  root- 
crops,"  which  require  digging,  or  of  pod  plants,  such 
as  peas  or  beans,  where  hand-picking  is  generally 
required.  The  arrangement  of  parts  in  the  ripened 
ear  makes  the  separation  of  the  kernels  a  much 
simpler  matter  than  the  removal  of  nut  meats  from 
their  husks  and  shells.  Moreover,  on  account  of  the 
delicacy  of  the  hulls  of  grains  it  is  particularly  easy 
to  remove  the  edible  portion  of  the  kernels  by  milling 
(i.  e.  grinding  and  sifting),  and  so  to  render  the  final 
preparation  of  the  seed  food  as  simple  as  possible. 
In  this  way,  so  fully  is  the  most  nutritious  part  of 
the  kernel  freed  from  all  indigestible  matters  that 
cereal  foods  when  eaten  are  found  to  be  among  the 
very  easiest  for  the  digestive  organs  to  manage. 

To  the  question,  Why  do  corn  plants  yield  their 
kernels  so  readily  to  man  ?  the  answer  plainly  is  : 
Because  at  first  they  confided  their  offspring  to  the 
wind  for  transportation.  If  we  ask,  Why  is  the  seed 
food  so  easy  to  separate  and  digest?  the  answer  is 
equally  plain  :  The  seed  food  is  stored  by  the  side  of 
the  germ.  Therefore,  simply  crushing  the  grain  will 
free  the  nutritive  part  both  from  the  germ  and  from 
the  hull.  Moreover,  since,  in  sprouting,  the  infant 


ADVANTAGES  AS  FOOD-PLANTS.  73 

plant  needs  to  have  its  food  supplied  promptly  in 
liquid  form,  it  is  necessary  that  the  nutritious  mate- 
rials should  be  easy  of  digestion  ;  and  as  the  digestion 
of  these  substances  depends  on  the  action  of  much  the 
same  ferments  both  in  the  grain  and  in  the  human 
body,  we  see  that  what  is  easy  for  the  one  is  easy  for 
the  other. 

Bulk. 

Another  important  advantage  which  the  grains 
have  for  us  is  that  they  contain  much  nutriment  in 
little  space.  In  this  respect  they  surpass  nearly  all 
the  other  vegetables  used  as  food.  If  we  compare, 
for  example,  the  food  value  of  equal  weights  of  wheat 
grains  and  potatoes,  we  find  a  remarkable  difference 
between  them.  Wheat  contains  over  three  times  as 
much  energy  food  (starch,  etc.),  and  more  than  five 
times  as  much  muscle-forming  material  (gluten  and 
the  like),  as  we  find  in  potato ;  while  in  the  potato 
there  is  over  five  times  as  much  water  as  in  the  wheat. 
Thus,  to  supply  our  need  for  muscle-forming  mate- 
rials, one  pound  of  wheat  is  better  than  five  pounds 
of  potato.  Consequently,  when  food  has  to  be  carried 
from  one  region  to  another,  grain  plainly  possesses 
immense  advantages,  both  in  the  matter  of  weight 
and  of  bulk.  By  the  use  of  grains  as  food,  travelers 
are  able  to  make  journeys  which  otherwise  would  be 
scarcely  possible.  So  also  has  it  been  with  the  great 
armies  of  the  world  in  extending  their  conquests. 

We  may  account  for  the  superiority  of  grains  in 
this  respect,  likewise,  by  referring  again  to  the  needs 
of  the  plant.  Infant  corn  plants  in  the  wild  state  are, 
as  we  have  seen,  extensive  travelers,  while  such  buried 
off-shoots  as  potatoes  we  know  to  be  stay-at-homes, 


74  CORN  PLANTS. 

sprouting  where  they  were  formed.  We  should  ex- 
pect, therefore,  that  potatoes  would  be  large  and  full 
of  water,  since  weight  and  bulk  have  no  disadvantages 
for  them.  For  kernels  of  grain,  on  the  contrary, 
lightness  is  plainly  essential  so  long  as  they  depend 
on  the  wind  to  carry  them.  Hence  we  find  the  infant 
corn  plant  provided  for  its  journey  with  a  ration  com- 
posed of  the  most  nutritious  food-stuffs,  in  a  form  as 
compact  as  possible. 


Finally,  it  should  be  noticed  that  the  extreme  dry- 
ness  of  the  kernels,  taken  in  connection  with  the  fact 
that  only  a  very  small  amount  of  oil  is  present  in  the 
seed  food,  gives  another  advantage  to  the  offspring  of 
corn  plants  and  increases  their  value  to  mankind. 
Seed  food  which  is  moist  or  is  rich  in  oil  must  be 
used  within  a  comparatively  short  time,  or  it  will  be 
found  to  have  turned  rancid  or  to  have  become  other- 
wise spoiled.  The  oily  kernels  of  various  nuts,  for 
example,  have  this  drawback.  Grains,  on  the  contrary, 
if  properly  stored,  may  be  kept  unchanged  for  very 
many  years.  Thus,  by  wise  foresight,  man  is  en- 
abled to  make  sure  of  his  daily  bread  even  through 
years  of  famine.  That  this  advantage  was  very  early 
appreciated  among  ancient  peoples  is  well  shown  by 
the  story  of  Joseph  in  Egypt  (Genesis  xli.). 

In  our  own  day  the  storage  of  grain  in  prosperous 
regions  during  seasons  of  plenty  has  proved  vastly 
important  as  a  safeguard  of  civilization.  Famine- 
stricken  peoples  in  various  parts  of  the  Old  World 
have  often  owed  their  lives  to  the  breadstuffs  sent 
from  American  granaries.  With  regard  to  the  corn 
plants  themselves,  even  when  wild,  it  is  easy  to  see 


ADVANTAGES  AS  FOOD-PLANTS.  75 

how  the  good  keeping  qualities  of  their  seed  food 
would  sometimes  be  of  benefit.  After  the  kernels 
have  been  carried  away  by  the  wind  it  cannot  always 
happen  that  they  will  come  at  once  under  the  neces- 
sary conditions  for  germination.  If  such  kernels  can 
safely  wait  a  long  while  before  sprouting,  their  chance 
of  final  success  is  plainly  increased.  In  this  respect, 
therefore,  the  seeds  of  corn  plants  have  an  advantage 
over  many  others  which  must  die  within  a  few  months 
if  they  fail  to  germinate. 

Summary. 

The  chief  advantages  of  cereals  as  food-plants  have 
now  been  mentioned.  Without  exception  we  have 
found  that  the  features  which  make  corn  plants  espe- 
cially useful  to  man  are  of  benefit  to  the  plants  them- 
selves as  dwellers  in  the  field.  We  may  conclude, 
therefore,  that  their  great  usefulness  to  us  is  mainly 
due  to  their  wonderful  fitness  for  field  life  and  their 
unstinted  provision  for  the  welfare  of  their  offspring. 
It  is  chiefly  because  they  provide  so  well  for  their 
young  that  man  has  come  to  care  for  them  and  multi- 
ply their  kind.  Man  takes  for  his  share  of  their 
produce  the  surplus  of  seeds  which  the  wind  once 
wasted,  but  by  the  rest  he  makes  their  life  more  and 
more  abundant.  Each  kind,  at  first  growing  only 
within  comparatively  narrow  bounds,  now  under 
man's  care  flourishes  far  and  wide.  To  corn  plants 
have  been  given  the  greater  part  of  the  richest  fields 
of  the  earth. 

VI.    WHEAT,  THE  KING  OF  CEREALS. 
Throughout  the  civilized  world,  wherever  wheat  will 
grow  or  where  the  people  are  not  too  poor  to  buy  it, 


76  CORN  PLANTS. 

this  grain  holds  the  foremost  place.  It  has  always 
yielded  "the  staff  of  life"  to  the  greatest  and  most 
powerful  nations  since  the  beginning  of  history. 

Wheat  has  been  so  long  and  so  widely  cultivated 
that  the  question  of  where  it  first  grew  wild  is  one 
very  difficult  to  answer  with  entire  certainty.  It 
seems  highly  probable,  however,  that  the  native  home 
of  wheat  was  in  the  region  of  Mesopotamia.  (See 
map,  p.  103.)  Botanists  believe  also  that  wheat  was 
first  cultivated  in  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates.  As  a  centre  from  which  to  spread  most 
widely  and  rapidly,  this  region  would  surely  have 
been  the  most  fortunate  possible,  since  it  lies  in  that 
part  of  Asia  which  is  within  easiest  reach  of  both 
Africa  and  Europe.  Hence  from  no  other  locality 
could  this  invaluable  food-plant  have  been  carried  so 
readily  into  the  other  parts  of  the  Old  World  where 
civilization  might  best  advance.  There  seems  good 
reason  to  believe  that  civilization  first  arose  in  the 
home  of  wheat,  and  that  the  highest  civilizations  have 
always  depended  in  their  conquests  upon  the  king  of 
cereals. 

We  know  that  in  Palestine  and  in  Egypt  wheat 
was  cultivated  long  before  the  dawn  of  history,  and 
that  in  very  early  times  its  culture  had  extended  east- 
ward to  Persia,  India,  and  China,  westward  to  Greece 
and  Rome,  and  northward  or  northwestward  into  cen- 
tral Europe.  Wheat  was  first  brought  to  the  New 
World  soon  after  the  discovery  of  America  by 
Columbus.  To-day  the  United  States  produces  more 
wheat  than  any  other  nation. 

This  grain  holds  the  highest  place  among  corn 
plants  because  only  from  wheat  flour  can  raised  white 
bread  be  made.  The  whiteness  of  wheat  products 


WHEAT,   THE  KING   OF  CEREALS. 


77 


has  long  been  recognized  as  their  most  characteristic 
attraction.   Indeed  "  wheat  "  and  "  white  "  come  from 


FIG.  21.  Rice.  A,  part  of  inflorescence. 
B,  a  spikelet  in  flower.  F,  a  flower  show- 
ing six  stamens,  a  pistil  with  ovary,  two 
styles  and  stigmas,  and  a  pair  of  lodicules 
at  the  base.  K,  a  kernel.  (Nees.) 


FIG.  22.  Rice.  I,  a  spikelet  of  a 
bearded  variety,  showing  the  long 
awn  developed  from  the  tip  of  an 
inner  bract.  Natural  size. 

II,  a  part  of  the  awn,  enlarged, 
to  show  the  upward  pointing 
barbs.  (Original.) 


the  same  word  in  the  ancient  Anglo-Saxon  language. 
It  still  remains  true  with  us  that  white  bread  is 
always  wheat  bread. 

The   raising  of  bread,  as  already  stated,  depends 


78  CORN  PLANTS. 

upon  the  presence  of  gluten.  As  raised  bread  is  most 
commonly  made  the  flour  is  mixed  with  a  little  water 
and  yeast  to  form  a  stiff  dough,  which  then  is  vigor- 
ously kneaded  so  that  the  yeast  may  be  well  distrib- 
uted throughout  the  mass.  This  accomplished,  the 
dough  is  put  in  a  warm  place  to  "  rise."  The  condi- 
tions are  now  favorable  for  the  yeast  to  begin  its 
work.  What  this  work  is  may  be  understood  from 
the  fact  that  yeast  contains  a  ferment,  which,  like 
some  of  those  already  mentioned,  acts  on  starch.  Yet 
while  these,  as  will  be  remembered,  simply  turn  starch 
into  sugar,  the  yeast  ferment  has  the  power  to  make, 
from  starch,  alcohol  and  an  odorless  gas  known  as  car- 
bon dioxide.  Each  particle  of  yeast,  made  warm  and 
moist  and  surrounded  by  starch,  becomes  thus  a  tiny 
gas  factory.  If  there  were  nothing  to  prevent,  the 
gas  would,  of  course,  escape.  But  in  the  wheat  dough 
the  gas  is  held  in  little  cavities  by  the  gluten.  As 
the  gluten  is  elastic  these  cavities  become  larger  and 
larger  with  the  pressure  of  the  gas  within.  It  is  this 
enlargement  of  innumerable  small  cavities  throughout 
the  dough  which  makes  it  "  rise  "  into  a  light  spongy 
mass  ready  for  baking. 

The  heat  of  the  oven  stops  further  action  of  the 
yeast,  enlarges  somewhat  the  cavities  in  the  dough  by 
expanding  the  gas,  hardens  the  gluten  so  that  the  cav- 
ities cannot  shrink,  and  then  drives  off  the  greater 
part  of  the  moisture,  alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide.  At 
last  the  crust  comes  to  a  perfect  brown,  indicating 
that  the  best  flavor  of  the  wheat  has  been  developed. 
The  final  result  is  a  loaf  of  wheat  bread,  the  highest 
type  of  human  food. 

The  peculiarities  of  wheat  gluten  also  make  possi- 
ble such  valuable  foods  as  macaroni,  which  consists 


WHEAT,   THE  KING   OF  CEREALS.  79 

very  largely  of  this  substance.  The  same  is  true  in 
general  also  of  crackers  or  biscuits,  especially  the 
tough,  long-keeping  sort  known  as  ship-biscuit  or 
hard-tack,  which  forms  the  chief  vegetable  food  of 
crews  at  sea.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  in- 
numerable articles  of  human  food  which  consist  wholly 
or  in  part  of  wheat  owe  their  special  excellence  to  the 
peculiar  properties  oTthe-gluten  present. 

The  starch  which  forms,  as  we  know,  the  main  part 
of  the  wheat  kernel  is  likewise  of  great  value,  not 
only  in  the  foods  above  mentioned,  but  also  by  itself 
when  separated  as  a  pure  product.  Wheat  starch  is 
extensively  used  as  a  material  for  paste  or  sizing  in 
various  manufactures. 

Just  as  the  inner  part  of  the  kernel  is  invaluable 
for  human  food,  so  the  outer  part  or  "  bran,"  which 
includes  bits  of  hull  and  adhering  particles  of  seed 
food,  is  one  of  the  very  best  feeding  stuffs  for  domes- 
tic animals.  The  straw,  both  green  and  ripe,  is  also 
widely  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

On  the  immense  wheat  farms  of  the  far  West,  the 
straw  is  used  in  curious  ways.  At  harvest  it  supplies 
the  fuel  for  great  steam  threshing-machines  as  they 
work  in  the  fields.  One  part  of  the  wheat  plant  is 
thus  made  to  help  prepare  another  part  for  market. 
In  some  regions  the  straw  is  used  for  building  barns 
in  which  to  store  the  grain.  This  is  accomplished  by 
making  solid  bales  or  blocks  of  the  material  under 
great  pressure  and  piling  them  like  stones  to  form  a 
thick,  substantial  wall.  A  roof,  perhaps  thatched  with 
straw,  completes  the  structure. 

Not  the  least  important  use  of  wheat  straw  is  as 
material  for  the  finest  kinds  of  straw  hats  and  bon- 
nets. In  Italy  an  especially  slender  variety  of  wheat 


80  CORN  PLANTS. 

is  grown  for  the  purpose  by  sowing  very  thickly  in 
poor  soil.  From  straw  thus  raised  the  famous  Flor- 
entine or  Leghorn  hats  are  manufactured.  Stouter 
kinds  of  wheat  afford  material  for  hats  made  of 
coarser  braids. 

Thus  we  see  that  every  part  of  a  wheat  plant  is  put 
to  important  and  remarkably  varied  uses.  But  few 
plants  besides  wheat  can  be  said  to  furnish  food,  fuel, 
shelter,  and  clothing. 

VII.     OATS,  THE  GRAIN  OF  HARDINESS. 

It  is  told  of  an  Englishman,  who  was  fond  of  poking 
fun  at  the  Scotch,  that  one  day  he  saw  a  Highlander 
with  a  bag  of  oats,  and  remarked,  "There's  what 
feeds  horses  in  England  and  in  Scotland  feeds  men." 
"True  enough,"  replied  the  other,  "and  that's  why 
ye  Ve  such  fine  horses  and  we  've  such  fine  men !  " 
The  Scotchman's  retort  showed  no  less  wisdom  than 
wit,  for  oats  have  long  been  the  favorite  food  of  the 
hardiest  peoples  of  northern  Europe,  and  this  grain  is 
generally  recognized  as  the  most  strengthening  fodder 
for  hard-working  animals. 

Oatmeal  is  found  to  contain  more  proteid  or  muscle- 
forming  substance  than  the  average  wheat  flour.  The 
proteid  of  oats  is  inferior  to  wheat  gluten  only  in 
being  somewhat  less  digestible.  In  fatty  material 
oats  are  the  richest  of  all  the  grains. 

For  northern  peoples  this  grain  has  the  advantage 
over  wheat  that  it  will  grow  at  its  best  in  cold  climates. 
But  it  does  not  ripen  its  kernels  well  in  regions  as  far 
south  as  the  Mediterranean  sea,  where  wheat  seems 
thoroughly  at  home. 

From  these  and  other  facts  botanists  conclude  that 
the  original  home  of  oats  was  most  probably  in  cen- 


Fio.  24.  Eye.  S,  a  single 
spikelet  showing  its  two  flowers. 
Cl,  C2,  outer  bracts.  D,  inner 
bract  with  awn  at  tip.  E,  inner 
bract  without  awn.  Kl,  ker- 
nel viewed  from  the  germ  side. 
K2,  the  same  viewed  from  the 
grooved  side.  K3,  the  same  en- 
Fio.  23.  Eye,  inflorescence.  (Mull-Guyot.)  larged  and  cut  across.  (Nees.) 


82  CORN  PLANTS. 

tral  and  eastern  Europe,  extending  perhaps  into  west- 
ern Asia.  (See  map,  p.  103.)  So  far  as  may  be  judged 
from  ancient  remains  the  cultivation  of  this  grain  first 
began  in  middle  and  northern  Europe,  long  after  the 
introduction  of  wheat  but  before  civilization  was  estab- 
lished. It  is  not  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  and  seems 
to  have  been  entirely  unknown  in  ancient  Assyria 
and  Egypt.  To-day  the  cultivation  of  oats  has  ex- 
tended eastward  to  China  and  westward  to  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  where  large  crops  are  now  raised. 
In  Scotland  and  Iceland  oats  yield  the  chief  vegetable 
food. 

Since  good  raised  bread  cannot  be  made  from  this 
grain,  it  is  mainly  used  in  the  form  of  meal  cooked 
either  as  a  porridge  or  baked  into  flat  cakes.  Much 
use  is  also  made  of  the  kernels,  whole  or  crushed, 
freed  from  the  hulls  and  cooked  like  rice.  Such 
hulled  kernels  are  known  as  "  groats "  among  the 
Scotch,  who  depend  on  them  very  largely  for  food. 
It  is  in  reference  to  this  article  of  diet,  as  characteris- 
tic of  these  hardy  people,  that  the  quaint  name,  "  John 
o'  Groat's  House,"  has  been  given  to  the  extreme 
northeastern  point  of  Scotland.  The  "oatmeal"  so 
widely  used  as  a  breakfast  food  in  America  is  more 
truly  "  groats,"  or  "  grits,"  than  meal. 

The  straw  of  oats  has  important  uses.  As  a  fodder 
and  bedding  for  horses  and  cattle  it  is  generally  pre- 
ferred by  farmers  to  the  straw  of  either  wheat,  barley, 
or  rye.  Manufacturers  of  coarse  paper  and  paste- 
board use  considerable  quantities  of  oat  straw.  It  is 
also  one  of  the  most  useful  sorts  for  packing  and  for 
filling  mattresses. 

In  many  localities  oats  are  grown  to  be  cut  green 
as  hay.  In  warm  regions,  such  as  our  Southern  States, 


RYE,   THE  GRAIN  OF  POVERTY.  83 

where  the  ordinary  hay  grasses  do  not  flourish,  oats 
are  successfully  cultivated  for  this  purpose,  because 
the  stalks  and  leaves  grow  luxuriantly,  although  the 
kernels  are  poor. 

The  worst  enemies  of  the  oat  are  heat  and  drought. 
Its  hanging  spikelets  shed  the  rain,  and  wind  and  cold 
can  scarcely  harm  it.  It  is  the  grain  of  hardiness ;  for 
not  only  is  it  the  hardiest  of  corn  plants,  but  it  is  the 
one  which  forms  the  main  support  of  hardy  northern 


VIII.    RYE,  THE  GRAIN  OF  POVERTY. 

Eye  will  grow  and  produce  a  fairly  good  crop  where 
the  soil  is  too  poor  or  the  climate  too  hot  or  too  dry 
for  any  other  cereal  to  thrive.  Such  conditions  are 
found  over  the  greater  part  of  northern  Europe  and 
Asia.  In  these  vast  regions,  therefore,  rye  is  the 
staple  bread-stuff,  and  forms  the  chief  food  of  the 
peasant  classes.  Indeed,  it  would  seem  that  a  large 
part  of  northern  Europe  and  Asia  could  scarcely  have 
become  populated  as  it  is  to-day  except  for  the  possi- 
bility of  growing  rye  on  poor  soil. 

The  original  wild  form  of  this  grain  is  believed  by 
botanists  to  have  been  native  to  mountainous  or 
mostly  dry  localities,  in  the  south  of  Europe  and  ex- 
tending perhaps  to  central  Asia.  The  native  home  of 
rye  would  therefore  seem  to  be  in  a  region  between 
the  home  of  oats  on  the  north  and  that  of  wheat  on 
the  south.  (See  map,  p.  103.) 

There  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  the  great  peoples 
of  antiquity  were  acquainted  with  rye.  The  name 
occurs,  it  is  true,  in  our  Authorized  Version  of  the 
Old  Testament  (Exodus  ix.  32,  and  Isaiah  xxviii.  25), 
but,  as  shown  by  the  Revised  Version,  the  Hebrew 


84  CORN  PLANTS. 

word  at  first  translated  "  rie  "  is  now  known  to  mean 
"  spelt,"  which  is  a  peculiar  kind  of  wheat. 

The  cultivation  of  rye  probably  first  began  in 
southern  Russia  and  Siberia,  whence  it  extended  to 
other  parts  of  Europe  during  the  Christian  era.  From 
Europe  it  was  brought  to  America  by  the  early  colo- 
nists. Among  the  peasantry  of  Germany  and  of  Rus- 
sia, a  dark-colored  bread,  tough  and  coarse,  is  made 
of  rye  meal  or  bran.  This  forms  their  most  impor- 
tant food.  In  Sweden  rye  grows  especially  well,  and 
bread  made  from  the  flour  is  the  favorite  food  of  all 
classes.  Rye  is  less  nutritious  than  wheat  or  oats, 
but  generally  contains  more  proteid  than  either  barley, 
rice,  or  maize. 

During  the  early  history  of  our  country  rye  was 
much  used  because  of  its  ready  growth  on  soil  not 
well  fitted  for  other  grains.  The  meal,  mixed  with 
that  of  Indian  corn,  made  a  "  brown  bread "  similar 
to  that  still  widely  enjoyed  in  New  England.  An- 
other use  for  which  rye  largely  served  was  the  making 
of  whiskey. 

While  rye  has  continued  to  be  raised  in  consider- 
able quantities  for  the  making  of  whiskey,  its  use  for 
food  in  this  country  has  come  to  be  very  small  in 
comparison  with  that  of  wheat,  oats,  or  maize.  On 
worn-out  or  thin  soils  it  is  grown  somewhat  extensively 
as  a  green-forage  crop.  When  ripe  the  straw  becomes 
the  poorest  for  fodder  of  any  cereal  straw,  because  it  is 
then  the  most  harsh  and  tough.  These  very  qualities, 
however,  combined  with  unusual  length  in  the  stalks, 
make  rye  straw  the  best  for  such  purposes  as  packing, 
and  bedding  for  horses  and  cattle,  and  as  material  for 
cheap  straw  hats,  straw  paper,  and  straw  pasteboard. 
Such  large  quantities  are  used  in  these  ways,  and  rye 


BARLEY,   THE  BREWER'S  GRAIN.  85 

straw  is  so  much  preferred  to  any  other,  that  many  of 
our  farmers,  especially  in  the  East,  raise  rye  more  for 
the  straw  than  for  the  grain. 

IX.    BARLEY,  THE  BREWER'S  GRAIN. 

Our  study  of  wheat,  oats,  and  rye  has  shown  them 
to  be  examples  of  the  general  rule,  that  the  charac- 
teristic food  of  a  people  is  largely  determined  by  the 
climate  and  soil  of  the  region  in  which  they  live.  The 
same  rule  applies  to  alcoholic  beverages.  Thus  in 
southern  Europe  and  other  regions  where  the  wine- 
grape  grows  well,  wine  is  the  common  drink;  and 
brandy,  which  is  distilled  from  wine,  is  the  form  of 
spirit  most  in  use.  In  such  regions  as  northern 
Europe,  however,  which  are  too  cool  or  too  dry  for 
wine-growing,  the  popular  alcoholic  drinks  are  ob- 
tained from  grains.  That  is  to  say,  whiskey  and  gin, 
which  are  distilled  mostly  from  rye  or  maize,  largely 
take  the  place  of  brandy;  while  beer,  ale,  and  the 
like,  which  are  made  principally  from  barley,  serve 
much  the  same  purpose  as  wines.  These  facts  add 
interest  to  the  following  statement  of  the  ancient 
Grecian  historian  Herodotus  regarding  the  Egyptians 
of  his  day  :  "They  use,"  he  says,  "  wine  made  of  bar- 
ley, for  they  have  no  [grape]  vines  in  that  country."1 
What  Herodotus  meant  by  "  wine  made  of  barley  " 
was  doubtless  a  sort  of  beer  similar  to  what  is  brewed 
from  barley  to-day.  At  the  present  time,  not  only  is 
beer  made  principally  from  barley,  but  the  principal 
purpose  for  which  barley  is  raised  is  the  brewing  of 
beer. 

The  process  of  brewing  is  essentially  as  follows: 
First,  kernels  of  barley  are  soaked  in  water  for  a 
1  Herodotus,  Book  II.,  chapter  77. 


86  CORN  PLANTS. 

while  and  then  spread  out  to  sprout.  In  the  process 
of  germination,  as  we  have  seen,  the  starch  of  the 
seed  food  is  turned  into  sugar,  which  is  then  absorbed 
by  the  germ.  Hence,  up  to  a  certain  point  in  the 
process,  the  sugar  increases  in  amount,  and  after  that, 
becomes  less  and  less  as  the  plantlet  grows.  Just  as 
soon  as  the  brewer  finds  that  the  largest  possible 
amount  of  sugar  is  present,  the  sprouting  is  stopped 
by  heating  the  grains  sufficiently  to  kill  them.  Grains 
thus  sprouted  and  killed  at  the  proper  time  are  known 
as  malt.  Such  was  "  the  malt  that  lay  in  the  house 
that  Jack  built."  Malting  is  the  first  step  in  the 
making  of  beer.  The  second  step  is  grinding  the 
malt  and  soaking  it  in  water  to  dissolve  out  the  sugar. 
To  the  sweet  liquid  thus  obtained  yeast  is  added  to 
bring  about  fermentation.  As  in  the  "raising"  of 
bread,  the  sugar  is  transformed  into  alcohol  and  car- 
bon dioxide  gas.  When  the  fermentation  goes  on  in 
a  closed  vessel,  as  a  cask  or  a  bottle,  the  gas  is  re- 
tained in  the  liquid  and  when  the  beer  is  drawn  forms 
bubbles  of  foam. 

Just  as  sugar  is  turned  to  alcohol  by  yeast,  so, 
through  the  action  of  another  ferment,  alcohol  is 
turned  to  the  acid  of  vinegar  unless  means  are  taken 
to  prevent  it.  Beer  is  now  generally  kept  from  sour- 
ing by  the  addition  of  hops,  the  flowers  of  which 
contain  a  bitter  substance  that  does  not  interfere  with 
the  working  of  the  yeast,  but  retards  the  action  of  the 
acid  ferment. 

Other  malt  liquors,  such  as  ale  and  porter,  are 
made  from  barley  in  much  the  same  way  as  above 
described.  When  other  grains  are  malted  the  process 
is  the  same  as  with  barley.  Spirituous  liquors,  such 
as  whiskey  and  gin,  are  made  by  distilling  a  sort  of 


FIG.  25.  Common  bearded  wheat,  in- 
florescence.   (Hackel.) 


FIG.  26.  Club  wheat,  inflo- 
rescence.   (Hackel.) 


88  CORN  PLANTS. 

beer.  That  is  to  say,  from  a  weak  alcoholic  liquid  — 
the  fermented  extract  of  some  malted  grain  —  a 
strong  liquor  is  produced  by  a  peculiar  process  of 
concentration. 

Brewers  prefer  barley  to  any  of  the  other  grains 
for  malting,  because  of  its  exceptionally  ready  ger- 
mination. Its  very  general  use  for  beer-making  is 
favored  also  by  the  fact  that  it  thrives  over  a  wider 
range  of  climate  than  any  other  corn  plant.  It  grows 
well  even  farther  north  than  oats,  and  at  the  same 
time  will  flourish  in  sub-tropical  soil. 

The  native  home  of  barley  is  believed  to  be  in 
southwestern  Asia.  (See  map,  p.  103.)  From  the 
very  earliest  times  it  has  been  extensively  grown  by 
the  great  peoples  of  antiquity  who  dwelt  about  the 
Mediterranean  sea.  Records  of  its  use  in  ancient 
Egypt,  Assyria,  Palestine,  and  Greece,  indicate  that 
barley  was  cultivated  as  early  as  if  not  earlier  than 
wheat. 

Until  modern  times  its  principal  use  has  been  for 
food,  although,  as  we  have  seen,  it  has  long  been  used 
also  for  beer.  As  a  bread-stuff  barley  has  always 
ranked  lower  than  wheat.  It  has  served  chiefly  as  a 
food  for  the  poorer  classes  who  could  not  afford  much 
wheat.  The  ancients  used  to  feed  their  athletes  on 
barley  bread,  in  the  belief  that  it  was  an  especially 
strengthening  food.  From  their  use  of  this  food  the 
Roman  gladiators  were  called  hordearii,  or  "  barley- 
boys,"  as  we  may  freely  translate  it,  much  as  the  name 
,  "beef-eaters"  is  now  applied  in  England  to  the  yeo- 
/  men  of  the  royal  guard.  In  the  great  armies  of  anti- 
I  quity  barley  was  largely  used  as  food  for  both  man 
and  beast.  Nebuchadnezzar's  horses  and  Solomon's 
L  dromedaries  were  doubtless  fed  on  barley. 


RICE,   THE  CORN  OF  THE  EAST.  89 

At  the  present  day,  in  warm  regions  where  oats  do 
not  thrive,  barley  is  used  considerably  as  a  fodder. 
As  a  human  food,  however,  it  is  now  used  only  to 
a  comparatively  small  extent  throughout  the  world. 
With  us  it  is  eaten  almost  entirely  as  "  pearl-barley." 
This  consists  of  the  kernels  deprived  of  their  outer 
coverings  and  rounded.  It  appears  in  modern  cook- 
ery chiefly  as  an  addition  to  broths  or  soups.  The 
nutritive  value  of  barley  is  usually  less  than  that  of 
either  wheat,  oats,  or  rye.  From  being  the  grain  most 
used  as  food  by  the  ancients,  barley  has  now  come  to 
be  eaten  less  than  any  other  grain.  Were  it  not  for 
the  extensive  use  made  of  this  grain  by  brewers,  only 
a  comparatively  insignificant  amount  would  now  be 
raised. 

X.  RICE,  THE  CORN  OF  THE  EAST. 
Rice  gives  food  to  more  people  than  any  other 
corn  plant.  It  is,  however,  the  least  nutritious  of 
cereals,  and  as  commonly  cultivated  would  seem  to 
require  more  labor  and  care  than  most  of  the  other 
grains.  Nevertheless,  rice  forms  the  chief  food,  and 
of  the  poorer  classes  almost  the  only  food,  throughout 
large  parts  of  India,1  China,  Japan,  and  the  East 
Indies.  It  is  used  also  extensively  in  other  regions  of 
moist  climate  within  or  near  the  tropics.  The  main 
reason  for  its  being  the  food  of  so  large  a  part  of 
the  human  race  is  doubtless  to  be  sought  in  the  fact 
that  about  half  the  population  of  the  world  live 
crowded  together  in  the  Eastern  countries  above 
named.  There,  owing  to  the  heat  and  abundant  moist- 

1  Indian  millet  takes  the  place  of  rice  in  the  dry  portions  of 
India,  and  the  total  amount  raised  throughout  the  country  is 
greater. 


90  CORN  PLANTS. 

ure  in  the  lowlands,  rice  yields  more  than  any  other 
cereal  would  do  under  the  circumstances.  Its  native 
home  (see  map,  p.  103)  is  in  southeastern  Asia.  As 
we  have  already  seen,  rice  has  been  cultivated  by  the 
people  of  the  East  for  over  forty  centuries. 

Growing  rice  affords  some  of  the  most  attractive 
features  of  Eastern  landscapes.  The  Rev.  Francis 
Tiffany,  writing  of  Japan,  records  as  follows  his  im- 
pression of  rice-fields  : 

"  Not  personally  addicted  to  rice  as  an  article  of 
diet,  —  unless,  perhaps,  as  a  mere  vehicle  for  the 
piquant  stimulus  of  curry,  — I  was  soon  forced  to 
admit  that  the  cultivation  of  this  cereal  for  purely 
aesthetic  ends  would  prove  an  enhancement  of  the 
charms  of  the  Garden  of  Eden.  At  this  late  Septem- 
ber season  of  the  year,  the  rice-lands  stretch  out  in  the 
sunshine  a  sea  of  gold.  Since  rice  declines  to  grow 
except  in  water,  and  water  declines  to  stand  still  ex- 
cept on  a  perfect  level,  the  immense  area  of  alluvial 
deposit  in  which  the  plant  roots  wears  the  look  of 
a  lake  of  luxuriant,  sunlit  vegetation.  Encircling  in 
graceful  curves  this  vast  burnished  expanse  —  now 
jutting  out  into  it  in  promontories  and  now  retreating 
to  leave  space  for  lovely  bays  —  are  hills  densely 
wooded,  completing  the  picture  with  ravishing  con- 
trasts of  form  and  color. 

"  Curiously  enough,  each  charming  little  valley,  with 
its  brook  winding  down  between  the  densely  wooded 
hills  to  the  shining  level  of  the  plain,  now  delights 
the  eye  with  the  exact  transcript  of  a  series  of  beauti- 
ful cascades  of  golden  rice.  As,  in  the  gardens  of 
Versailles,  streams  of  water  are  made  to  run  down 
great  flights  of  broad  stone  steps,  breaking  into  a 
gentle  fall  at  each  successive  step,  so  here  the  same 


MAIZE,   THE  CORN  OF  THE   WEST.          91 

effect  is  wrought  by  utilizing  the  water  of  the  de- 
scending brooks  for  successive  terraces  of  rice.  So 
vivid  the  impression  of  life  and  motion,  that  literally 
it  seems  as  though  the  beautiful  plant  itself  had  taken 
to  the  mobile  ways  of  the  element  in  which  it  grows. 
When  one  pictures  the  scene  of  an  infinite  variety  of 
these  lovely  little  valleys  pouring  their  brooks  of  gold 
through  luxuriantly  wooded  defiles  into  a  sea  of  gold 
below,  he  will  have  presented  to  the  mind  the  sight 
that  makes  one  of  Japan's  most  characteristic  beau- 
ties." 1 

In  our  country  the  cultivation  of  rice  is  restricted 
mostly  to  the  low-lying  parts  of  the  South  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  States.  The  total  yield  for  the  United 
States  is  less  than  that  of  any  of  the  other  cereals  we 
have  been  considering. 

XI.  MAIZE,  THE  CORN  OF  THE  WEST. 

Indian  corn  forms  by  far  the  largest  cereal  crop  of 
the  Western  Hemisphere.  In  the  United  States  the 
amount  raised  is  greater  than  the  sum  of  all  our  other 
grain  crops,  and  doubtless  considerably  exceeds  the 
total  maize  product  of  the  rest  of  the  world. 

The  place  of  maize  in  the  Western  Hemisphere  is 
similar  to  that  of  rice  in  the  far  East.  As  the  native 
home  of  rice  was  in  tropical  Asia  so  that  of  maize  was 
in  tropical  America.  (See  map,  p.  103.)  Although 
in  their  original  wild  state  both  were  thus  tropical 
grasses,  there  was  this  important  difference,  that, 
whereas  rice  grew  mainly  in  the  wet  lowlands,2  maize 

1  This  Goodly  Frame  the  Earth,  p.  27. 

2  Upland  rice,  a  variety  requiring  about  the  same  amount  of 
moisture  as  maize,  is  cultivated  to  a  limited  extent  on  rather 
dry  soils  at  considerable  altitudes.     It  is  much  less  productive 


92  CORN  PLANTS. 

was  a  highland  plant,  and  this  fact  has  made  possible 
a  much  greater  range  of  cultivation  for  the  corn  of 
the  West.  That  this  would  naturally  be  the  case  is 
plain  when  we  remember  that  at  high  elevations  in  the 
tropics  the  climate  is  like  that  of  lower  altitudes  in 
temperate  lands,  while  the  climate  of  tropical  lowlands 
can  be  matched  only  within  or  near  the  tropical  zone. 
"  Maize  or  '  Indian  corn,'  "  says  John  Fiske,1  "  has 
played  a  most  important  part  in  the  history  of  the 
New  World,  as  regards  both  the  red  men  and  the 
white  men.  It  could  be  planted  without  clearing  or 
ploughing  the  soil.  It  was  only  necessary  to  girdle 
the  trees  with  a  stone  hatchet,  so  as  to  destroy  their 
leaves  and  let  in  the  sunshine.  A  few  scratches  and 
digs  were  made  in  the  ground  with  a  stone  digger, 
and  the  seed  once  dropped  in  took  care  of  itself.  The 
--_ears  could  hang  for  weeks  after  ripening,  and  could  be 
picked  "off-  without  aaeddKrig-^rrth  the  stalk ;  there  was 
no  need  of  threshing  and  winnowing.  None  of  the 
Old  World  cereals  can  be  cultivated  without  much 
more  industry  and  intelligence.  At  the  same  time, 
when  Indian  corn  is  sown  in  tilled  land  it  yields  with 
littleTabor  more  than  twice  as  much  food  per  acre  as 
any  other  kind  of  grain.  This  was  of  incalculable  ad- 
vantage to  the  English  settlers  in  New  England,  who 
would  have  found  it  much  harder  to  gain  a  secure 
foothold  upon  the  soil  if  they  had  had  to  begin  by 
preparing  it  for  wheat  and  rye  without  the  aid  of  the 
beautiful  and  beneficent  American  plant.  The  Indians 
of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  North  America  for  the  most 

than  lowland  rice,  however,  and  the  amount  raised  throughout 
the  world  is  comparatively  insignficant.  The  statements  above 
apply  only  to  lowland  rice. 

1  The  Discovery  of  America,  vol.  i.  p.  27. 


MAIZE,   THE  CORN  OF  THE   WEST. 


93 


part  lived  in  stockaded  villages,  and  cultivated  their 
corn  along  with  beans,  pumpkins,  squashes,  and  to- 
bacco ;  but  their  cultiva- 
tion was  of  the  rudest 
sort,  and  population  was 
too  sparse  for  much  pro- 
gress toward  civilization. 
But  Indian  corn,  when 
sown  in  carefully  tilled 
and  irrigated  land,  had 
much  to  do  with  the 
denser  population,  'the  in- 
creasing organization  of 
labor,  and  the  higher  de- 
velopment in  the  arts, 
which  characterized  the 
confederacies  of  Mexico 
and  Central  America  and 
all  the  pueblo  Indians  of 
the  southwest." 

The  religious  ceremo- 
nies already  referred  to, 
in  which  the  ancient 
Americans  showed  their 
appreciation  of  the  value 
of  maize,  indicate  plainly 
that  these  people  must 
have  been  acquainted 
with  the  plant  for  many 

centuries  before  the  coming  of  Columbus.  Other  facts 
go  to  show  that  long  before  his  arrival  the  culture  of 
maize  had  spread  from  Mexico  as  a  centre  into  the 
temperate  regions  of  North  and  South  America.1 

1  The  proofs  of   this  view  are  given  at  length  in  Dr.  John 


EH. 


Fio.  27.  Wheat.  A,  spikelet.  C,  Cfe, 
outer  bract,  back  and  side  views.  D,  E, 
inner  bracts.  G,  pistil  with  pair  of  lodi- 
cules  at  base  ;  J,  ovary.  K1,  K-,  kernel, 
front  and  back  views.  B,  racing. 
(Hackel.) 


94  CORN  PLANTS. 

When  Columbus  landed  in  the  West  Indies  the  na- 
tives gave  him  a  sort  of  bread  made  from  a  grain 
which  they  called  mahiz.  In  his  letters  to  Spain  he 
spoke  of  the  Indian  corn  under  this  name,  and  from 
it  has  come  our  English  word  "  maize." 

Although  Columbus  and  his  followers  on  their  re- 
turn home  took  seeds  of  the  Indian  corn  with  them, 
its  value  seems  to  have  been  appreciated  very  slowly 
by  Europeans  outside  of  Spain  and  Portugal.  Until 
the  present  century  it  was  regarded  by  them  rather  as 
a  curiosity  than  as  a  valuable  food-plant.  At  the 
same  time  its  use  spread  remarkably  in  Africa  and 
Asia,  extending  even  to  China.  "  It  is  found  at  the 
present  time  in  the  East  Indies  among  savage  people, 
who  have  no  history  or  tradition  of  how  or  when  it 
was  brought  there.  It  appears  to  have  been  adopted 
by  the  barbarous  nations  of  the  Old  World  more 
rapidly  than  by  the  more  enlightened  countries  of 
Europe.  Probably  this  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  was 
peculiarly  well  adapted  to  the  agriculture  of  a  semi- 
barbarous  people."  l  It  is  now  cultivated  very  exten- 
sively in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  Old  World,  espe- 
cially in  Asia. 

The  early  settlers  in  America  learned  from  the 
natives,  not  only  their  simple  method  of  raising  the 
corn,  but  also  some  of  the  best  ways  of  using  it.  In 
Mexico  the  Spaniards  found  the  natives  making  a 
sort  of  bread  after  the  following  primitive  fashion : 
They  first  soaked  the  whole  kernels  in  hot  water,  with 

W.  Harshberger's  Maize :  A  Botanical  and  Economic  Study,  1893, 
Which  contains  also  much  other  valuable  information  regarding 
this  plant. 

1  Wm.  H.  Brewer,  Cereal  Production,  Tenth  Census  of  the 
United  States,  iii.  475. 


MAIZE,   THE  CORN  OF  THE   WEST.          95 

a  little  lime  to  soften  the  hulls,  until  the  whole  was 
tender  ;  then  the  grains  were  cleaned  and  crushed,  and 
finally  made  into  a  paste.  This  was  baked  by  spread- 
ing a  thin  layer  over  heated  stones.  Such  thin  cakes, 
to  which  the  Spaniards  gave  the  name  "  tortillas," 
soon  came  to  form  the  chief  bread  of  the  invaders, 
and  to  this  day  throughout  Mexico  it  is  a  favorite 
food  of  all  classes. 

A  somewhat  similar  food  is  prepared  by  the  Indians 
of  our  southeastern  States.  It  is  thus  described  by 
one  who  has  lived  among  them :  "  The  blue  variety 
[of  corn]  is  preferred  for  bread,  and  is  sorted  from 
the  rest  with  much  care.  .  .  .  The  corn,  after  being 
reduced  to  meal  in  a  stone  mortar,  has  a  peculiar 
bluish-white  appearance.  In  converting  it  into  bread, 
it  is  mixed  into  a  thin  batter,  and  a  brisk  fire  is  made 
to  heat  a  slab  of  iron  or  stone,  or  a  flat  earthenware 
plate ;  .  .  .  when  [the  slab  is]  sufficiently  heated  the 
women  press  the  fingers  of  the  right  hand  together, 
dip  them  in  the  batter,  draw  them  out  thickly  covered 
with  the  mixture,  .  .  .  [and  pass]  the  hand  equally 
over  the  heated  baker,  leaving  a  thin  coating,  which 
quickly  curls  up,  a  sign  that  it  is  cooked  on  that  side  ; 
it  is  then  taken  off,  another  dip  made  with  the  fingers, 
and  the  baker  is  besmeared  again ;  then  the  upper 
side  of  the  first  cake  is  laid  on  top  of  the  new  dip  ; 
when  the  second  one  is  ready  to  turn,  the  first  one  is 
already  cooked,  and  the  second  is  put  through  the 
same  process  as  the  first ;  and  so  on  until  a  number  of 
these  large  thin  sheets  of  wafer-like  bread  is  accumu-x 
lated.  They  are  rolled  up  together  and  form  what 
is  called  by  the  Moqui  Indians  '  guagava.'  It  looks 
like  blue  wrapping  paper,  but  somewhat  coarser  and 
has  a  polished  surface.  ...  At  first  it  seems  dry 


96  CORN  PLANTS. 

in  the  mouth,  but  it  soon  softens,  is  quite  sweet,  and 
is  easily  masticated."  1  Other  Indians  make  the  meal 
into  a  flat  cake  which  they  cook  in  hot  ashes.  From 
such  primitive  examples  of  cookery  were  doubtless 
derived  the  "  ash-cake,"  "  hoe-cake,"  and  "  corn-pone," 
so  widely  relished  throughout  our  Southern  States. 

The  early  settlers  in  New  England  adopted  several 
of  the  Indian  methods  of  preparing  maize,  and  in 
some  cases  kept  the  native  name  for  the  dishes  with 
but  little  change.  Thus  the  mixture  of  green  corn 
with  beans,  which  is  now  known  as  "  succotash,"  was 
called  by  the  Indians  msickquatash.  Similarly  our 
"  hominy,"  which  is  a  sort  of  maize  "  groats,"  was 
known  to  the  Indians  as  auhuminea.  Furthermore, 
we  learn  from  Roger  Williams,2  the  founder  of  Rhode 
Island,  that  the  native  nasaump,  "a  kind  of  meal 
pottage,  unpartch'd,"  became  the  "  samp  "  of  the  Eng- 
lish colonists.  "  Samp,"  he  says,  "  is  the  Indian  corne, 
beaten  and  boiled,  and  eaten  hot  or  cold  with  milke  or 
butter,  which  are  mercies  beyond  the  native's  plaine 
water,  and  is  a  dish  exceeding  wholesome  for  English 
bodies." 

Parching  or  toasting  the  corn  he  further  tells  us 
was  a  method  of  preparation  much  practiced  by  the 
Indians.  Regarding  the  parched  meal,  he  writes : 
"  [It]  is  a  readie  very  wholesome  food  which  they  eat 
with  a  little  water,  hot  or  cold ;  I  have  travelled  with 
neere  200.  of  them  at  once,  neere  100.  miles  through 
the  woods,  every  man  carrying  a  little  Basket  of  this 
at  his  back,  and  sometimes  in  a  hollow  girdle  about 
his  middle,  sufficient  for  a  man  three  or  four  daies ; 

1  Food  Products  of  the  North  American  Indians,  Report  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  1870,  p.  420. 

2  A  Key  to  the  Languaye  of  America,  1643,  p.  12. 


Pis.  28.  Common  barley.  A,  inflo- 
rescence. B,  base  of  a  single  spikelet. 
(Hackel.) 


FIG.  29.  Two-rowed  barley.  A, 
inflorescence.  B,  base  of  a  single 
spikelet.  (Hackel.) 


98  CORN  PLANTS. 

with  this  ready  provision,  and  their  Bow  and  Arrowes, 
are  they  ready  for  War,  and  travell  at  an  houres 
warning.  With  a  spoonfull  of  this  meale  and  a 
spoonful!  of  water  from  the  Brooke,  have  I  made 
many  a  good  dinner  and  supper."  l 

Dr.  Benjamin  Franklin  tells  us  of  the  following 
curious  method  of  parching  corn  practiced  in  his  day 
by  the  farmers,  and  evidently  borrowed  from  the  In- 
dians. "  An  iron  pot  is  filled  with  sand,  and  set  on 
the  fire  till  the  sand  is  very  hot.  Two  or  three  pounds 
of  the  grain  are  then  thrown  in  and  well  mixed  with 
sand  by  stirring.  Each  grain  bursts  and  throws  out 
a  white  substance  of  twice  its  bigness.  The  sand  is 
separated  by  a  wire  sieve,  and  returned  into  the  pot 
to  be  again  heated,  and  repeat  the  operation  with 
fresh  grain.  That  which  is  parched  is  pounded  to  a 
powder  in  mortars.  This  being  sifted  will  keep  long 
for  use.  A  Indian  will  travel  far  and  subsist  long  on 
a  small  bag  of  it,  taking  only  six  or  eight  ounces  of 
it  per  day  mixed  with  water."  2 

In  this  singular  preparation,  the  reader  will  doubt- 
less recognize  the  original  of  our  modern  "  pop-corn," 
—  a  food  as  digestible  as  it  is  delicious,  and  one  well 
worthy  of  wider  use  to-day. 

Of  the  many  other  uses  which  maize  has  come  to 
have  in  modern  times,  only  brief  reference  may  here 
be  made  to  a  few  of  the  most  important.  Its  value  to 
man  as  furnishing  a  rich  variety  of  food-products  for 
himself  is  scarcely  greater  than  its  service  in  provid- 
ing fodder  for  his  domestic  animals.  The  ripened 
grain  affords  a  food  which  is  exceptionally  fattening, 
while  the  "  stover,"  or  those  parts  of  the  plant  left 

1  The  same,  p.  10. 

8  Franklin's  Works,  1818,  vol.  ii.  p.  277. 


MAIZE,  THE  CORN  OF  THE  WEST. 


99 


after  removal  of  the  ears,  is  found  to  be  as  nutritious 
as  the  best  hay.  Farmers  plant  maize  also  very 
largely  for  green  fodder.  Either  this  is  fed  fresh  or 
it  is  kept  moist  by 
packing  closely  in 
air  -  tight  structures 
called  "  silos,"  where 
it  ferments  some- 
what and  becomes 
what  is  known  as 
"  ensilage." 

The  pith  of  the 
mature  stalks  yields 
a  material  which 
from  its  property  of 
swelling  rapidly  when 
wet  has  an  important 
use  in  the  construc- 
tion of  war  vessels. 
A  thick  layer  of  this 
material  firmly 
packed  behind  the 
armor  of  the  hull  at 
and  near  the  water 
line  prevents  leakage 

1     ,  FIG.    30.    Six-rowed  barley.    B3,  a  group  of 

in  case  a  shot  pene-  three  gpikelet8  from  one  node  Of  t^  rachis.  %, 

trateS    the    Steel    COV-   £t<  single  applets.    F,  a  flower  (one  stigma 
,      .    ,        partly  removed).    Kl,  K*,  back  and  front  views 

ermg.    Several  of  the  o£  kernei.   (NeM.) 

battleships    of    the 

United  States  Navy  are  thus  protected. 

The  stalks,  leaves,  and  husks  have  been  found  to 
yield  excellent  material  for  paper,  and  also  fibres 
which  can  be  woven  into  fabrics.  The  husks  have, 
moreover,  considerable  value  as  packing  material,  as 


100  CORN  PLANTS. 

stuffing  for  mattresses,  as  material  for  coarse  matting, 
and  other  minor  uses. 

In  the  Western  States,  where  coal  and  wood  are 
especially  high,  ears  of  corn,  or  the  cobs  after  shell- 
ing, form  an  economical  fuel.  One  hundred  bushels 
of  corn  in  the  ear  are  about  eqtral  in  fuel  value  to  a 
cord  of  hard  wood  ;  three  tons  of  corn-cobs  equal  about 
one  ton  of  hard  coal.  In  mills  where  corn-cobs  are 
used  to  run  the  engines,  the  ashes  furnish  a  consider- 
able amount  of  potash. 

The  kernel  of  maize  is  so  rich  in  starch  that  this 
grain  forms  our  cheapest  source  of  that  important 
substance.  Nearly  all  the  starch  used  in  this  country, 
including  "  corn-starch  "  and  laundry  starch,  is  made 
from  Indian  corn.  There  are  many  large  factories 
where  the  starch  is  turned  into  a  kind  of  sugar  much 
used  by  confectioners.  In  the  process  of  separating 
the  starch  there  is  also  obtained  a  certain  amount  of 
oil.  This  has  been  used  for  illuminating  purposes, 
for  dressing  wool,  as  a  machine  oil,  and  in  the  manu- 
facture of  soap.  Maize  oil  is  extracted  also  to  some 
extent  from  the  malted  grain  in  distilleries  which 
use  Indian  corn  as  a  source  of  whiskey  and  alcohol. 
Nearly  all  the  spirit  now  manufactured  in  the  United 
States  is  made  from  maize. 

Finally,  it  must  be  said  that  maize  has  been  used 
also  in  various  ornamental  ways.  Its  attractive  foli- 
age and  graceful  appearance  have  led  horticulturists 
to  plant  it  in  gardens  along  with  other  ornamental 
grasses.  They  have,  moreover,  developed  a  special 
variety  with  striped  leaves.  Representations  of  the 
maize  plant,  as  also  of  wheat,  cotton,  tobacco,  and  oak 
appear  upon  United  States  dimes,  while  ears  of  In- 
dian corn,  together  with  sprays  of  the  cotton  plant 


FIG.  31.  Wild  oat-grasa.  1,  a  young  anther.  2,  a  mature  anther  holding  its 
pollen  exposed.  3,  two  spikelets  in  still  air  ;  the  left  hand  one  with  only  stamens 
exposed,  the  other  with  only  stigmas.  4,  similar  spikelets  in  a  breeze,  the  left 
hand  one  having  its  pollen  sacks  empty  before  its  stigmas  are  out,  the  other  with 
only  stamens  exposed  and  these  shedding  their  pollen  freely  in  the  wind.  All  en- 
larged. (Kerner.) 


102  CORN  PLANTS. 

and  heads  of  wheat,  are  included  in  the  design  of  our 
five-cent  pieces  of  recent  issue.  Maize  and  wheat 
appear  also  in  the  designs  of  the  "  Omaha  "  or  Trans- 
Mississippi  postage  stamps  issued  by  the  United  States 
in  1898. 

In  further  token  of  the  importance  of  maize  to 
our  country  it  has  been  proposed  to  have  this  plant 
adopted  for  our  national  flower,  so  that  it  might 
stand  as  the  symbol  of  our  country  as  does  the  rose 
for  England  and  the  chrysanthemum  for  Japan.  Un- 
fortunately for  this  idea,  it  is  now  well  known  that 
maize  is  not  native  within  the  territory  of  the  United 
States.  Moreover,  we  cannot  class  it  as  a  flower  in 
any  popular  sense  of  the  word.  For  us  to  call  what 
is  neither  a  flower  nor  native  our  national  flower, 
would  plainly  be  ridiculous.1  If,  however,  it  should 
some  day  come  to  pass  that  the  various  countries  of 
North  and  South  and  Central  America  shall  join  in 
one  grand  confederation,  then  surely  no  fitter  emblem 
could  be  chosen  to  symbolize  such  a  union  of  the 
nations  of  America  than  Indian  corn,  whose  golden 
grain  has  proved  to  be  the  richest  treasure  of  the 
West. 

XII.  A  GENERAL  VIEW  OF  CORN  PLANTS. 
Let  us  now  tie  up  our  sheaf,  and,  taking  a  broad 
survey  of  the  field  through  which  we  have  passed, 
let  us  try  to  gain  a  just  idea  of  the  place  of  corn 
plants  in  the  world.  Our  study  of  the  cereal  grains 
has  led  us  in  imagination  back  to  a  time  long  before 

1  For  a  fuller  discussion  of  the  merits  of  this  and  other  candi- 
dates for  Columbia's  floral  emblem  see  The  National  Flower 
Movement,  by  the  present  writer,  in  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Massachusetts  Horticultural  Society  for  1898. 


104  CORN  PLANTS. 

the  dawn  of  civilization,  when  our  forefathers  first 
gathered  the  grains  of  wild  plants  for  their  food. 
Since  from  seed-gathering,  planting  would  easily  fol- 
low, and  from  planting,  agriculture ;  and  since  agri- 
culture would  favor  the  founding  of  mighty  nations 
and  so  make  possible  the  highest  achievements  of 
mankind,  we  may  see  that  no  act  of  these  early 
ancestors  of  ours  was  more  full  of  promise  for  the 
human  race  than  their  choice  of  grains  as  a  food. 

This  choice  was  first  made,  it  would  seem,  by  men 
who  came  to  the  rich  valley  of  two  rivers  which  lay  at 
the  centre  of  the  ancient  world.  Also  in  moist,  hot 
lowlands  of  the  far  East,  and  on  a  fertile  highland 
between  the  two  great  Western  continents,  a  similar 
choice  was  made  by  other  races  of  men  perhaps  ages 
after;  while  later  still,  it  may  be,  ruder  northern 
tribes  in  cooler  and  drier  regions  came  to  use  the 
wild  grains  which  grew  near  their  hunting  grounds. 

However  this  choice  came  about,  we  may  say  that 
in  favored  spots  of  North  and  West  and  East  and 
Midland,  man  found  awaiting  him,  among  the  many 
plants  that  sprang  luxuriantly  from  the  soil,  certain 
grasses  which  outdid  all  the  rest  in  the  abundance 
and  quality  of  the  food  they  offered  him.  These 
grasses  were  born  to  a  life  in  the  open  fields  where 
they  could  best  obtain  plenty  of  food-making  sun- 
shine ;  there  they  grew  as  if  they  had  learned  to  out- 
wit the  wind  and  undo  the  harm  of  the  pelting  rain 
to  which  they  were  exposed  ;  and  when  drought  came 
it  found  them  well  prepared.  Moreover,  they  made 
the  utmost  use  of  every  inch  of  ground,  and  formed 
vast  brotherhoods  which  crowded  out  less  sturdy  or 
less  enterprising  plants.  But  best  of  all  were  the 
advantages  these  plants  secured  for  their  offspring. 


A  GENERAL    VIEW  OF  CORN  PLANTS.     105 

The  seeds  were  so  formed  that  the  infant  plant  inher- 
ited the  utmost  vigor  from  its  parents.  Protection 
against  various  enemies  was  provided  from  the  first. 
As  soon  as  it  was  ripe,  special  arrangements  were 
ready  for  its  safe  carriage  by  the  wind  to  some  favor- 
able place  of  growth.  Finally,  against  the  time  when 
the  little  traveler  should  begin  life  in  a  new  home,  an 
abundant  supply  of  most  nutritious  food  was  packed 
within  easy  reach.  This  food  was  of  sorts  best  fitted 
for  transportation  and  keeping,  and  means  were  pro- 
vided for  readily  converting  it  from  the  solid  to  the 
liquid  form  whenever  needed.  Everything  was  done 
to  give  the  plantlet  a  good  start  in  life. 

It  was  but  natural  that  plants  which  accomplished 
so  much  for  themselves  and  provided  so  well  for  their 
offspring  should  be  chosen  by  man  to  supply  his 
needs.  Nor  should  we  be  surprised  that  they  have 
proved  to  be  the  best  of  his  providers. 

He  has  repaid  their  bounty  by  his  care.  As  they 
have  fed  him,  he  has  enriched  the  soil  in  which  they 
grew ;  as  they  have  helped  him  to  travel,  he  has  car- 
ried them  to  fresh  fields  in  distant  lands;  as  they 
have  served  him  in  war,  he  has  fought  against  their 
enemies ;  as  through  their  wealth  man  has  multiplied, 
and  great  nations  have  peopled  the  earth,  he  has  estab- 
lished these  plants  in  ever  increasing  numbers  through- 
out the  world.  Wild  grasses  and  savages  have  thus 
through  mutual  help  developed  into  cultivated  cereals 
and  civilized  men. 

During  the  long  companionship  of  these  two  classes 
of  beings,  so  different  in  their  ways  of  life,  and  yet 
with  needs  so  much  alike,  man  has  felt  that  he  and 
they  were  somehow  made  to  be  of  service  one  to  the 
other.  He  has  seen  this  doubly  helpful  dependence 


106  CORN  PLANTS. 

to  be  part  of  the  wise  plan  of  the  Maker  of  all  for  the 
best  good  of  each.  As  richer  and  richer  harvests  have 
yielded  their  reward  for  man's  toil,  he  has  felt  an  ever 
deepening  thankfulness  to  the  Giver  of  Life.  Now, 
with  new  hope  of  the  highest  gifts,  he  asks  his  Father, 
"  Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread." 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 

31  1B29 

J£S  I Z  Kvr 

APP  2  9  1932 


JAN  251946 

NOV  2 
FEB-2  1952 


HOW  20  1988 


Form  L-9-15»n-ll,'27 


3  1158  00280  0000 


ESSUSSSSSSBO:  L|BRARY  FACILITY 


001  096  159     7 


ONIVER 


2ELES 

LIBRARY 


